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Anatomy > Final > Flashcards

Final Flashcards

1
Q

Digestive System

A

Stomach, liver, gallbladder, large and small intestine

Processes food for use by the body
Removes wastes from undigested food

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2
Q

Explain the role of enzymes in digestion and give examples of these enzymes

A

Enzymes in digestion act as catalysts that break down large food molecules into smaller, absorbable units.

Ex:
- Amylase(salivary and pancreatic): breaks down carbs into simple sugars
- Lipase(intestines): breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol
- Pepsin(stomach) and Trypsin(pancreas): breaks down proteins into amino acids.

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3
Q

Anatomy

A

Study of body structure

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4
Q

Salts

A

The product of a reaction between an acid and a base

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5
Q

Stomach Function

A

Storage pouch, digestive organ, churns food

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6
Q

Anabolism

A

When simple substances construct complex substances

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7
Q

Examples of a nucleotides

A

Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine

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8
Q

Dendrites

A

Neuron fibers that conduct impulses TO the cell body

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9
Q

Competitive and Noncompetitive Inhibition

A

In competitive inhibition, an inhibitor molecule is similar enough to a substrate that it can bind to the enzyme’s active site to stop it from binding to the substrate. This slows down or stops the reaction from occurring. It “competes” with the substrate to bind to the enzyme.

In non-competitive inhibition, inhibitor molecules bind to an enzyme at the allosteric site. This still slows down or stops the reaction from occurring.

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10
Q

Negative feedback

A

When the system occurs until it is returned to its original state

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11
Q

Endocrine System

A

Pituitary gland, thryoid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, testes, ovaries

Secretes hormones
Regulates bodily processes

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12
Q

Location(s) of stratified squamous

A

Esophagus, skin, mouth

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13
Q

Function of ___ in Plasma Membrane:
- Phospholipid Bilayer
- Cholesterol
- Carbs/ Glycoproteins/ Glycolipids

A
  • It is selectively permeable and decides what to let in and out of the cell.
  • Makes the membrane stronger and more flexible
  • Helps make cells more recognizable
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14
Q

Schwann cells

A

When the myelin is a cell

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15
Q

List three planes of division of the body

A
  • Frontal/coronal plane
  • Sagittal Plane
  • Transverse/ horizontal plane
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16
Q

Lateral

A

Towards the side of the body

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17
Q

Compare and contrast the exocrine vs endocrine portions of the pancreas.

A

Exocrine- Secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine to aid in digestion.

Endocrine- Regulates blood glucose levels by secreting hormones like insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin into the bloodstream.

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18
Q

Plasma Membrane

A

Outer layer of the cell

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19
Q

How do enzymes work?

A

They only work with specific substrates and do only one job. They are not used up or changed by the reactions.

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20
Q

Give a description of an action potential

A

Resting state- -70 mV; More sodium outside and more potassium inside
Depolarization- Sodium goes inside; 40 mV
Repolarization- Potassium goes out
Hyperpolarization- Lots of potassium leaving makes the inside of the cell really negative
Calcium helps the neurotransmitters release
Resting state

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21
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A

One part of the autonomic nervous system.

Deals with emotions(lower brain region)
Fight or flight response system to environmental stressors; uses energy and increases blood pressure and heartbeat. You are not rational or reasonable in this state of mind.

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22
Q

Composition of the Plasma Membrane

A
  • Phospholipid bilayer
  • Cholesterol between the phospholipids
  • Carbs- on top of proteins(glycoproteins) or lipids(glycolipids)
  • Different types of proteins are throughout the membrane
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23
Q

Innermost to outermost layers of the wall of the digestive tract and functions

A
  • Mucosa- absorption and secretion
  • Submucosa- blood vessels
  • Smooth muscle- muscular layer and pushes food
  • Serosa- lubrication
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24
Q

Small Intestine Functions

A
  • Secretion of mucus to protect the lining
  • Minimal peristalsis occurs
  • Digestion
  • Villi in the mucosa absorb nutrients
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25
Q

Bases

A

Chemical substance that can accept(react with) a hydrogen ion(H+). Most release a hydroxide ion (OH-) as well.

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26
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

The small spaces between Schwann cells that help speed nerve impulse conduction

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27
Q

Transverse/Horizontal Plane

A

Cut made between top and bottom of body

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28
Q

What does a nucleotide contain?

A

A nitrogenous base, a sugar, and a phosphate

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29
Q

Explain the use of feedback in regulating digestion and give several examples

A

Feedback mechanisms regulate digestion by adjusting digestive processes based on internal signals, ensuring homeostasis.

Negative feedback: When food enters the stomach, it triggers the release of gastrin, which stimulates acid production. As stomach acid rises, it inhibits further gastrin release to prevent excessive acidity.

Positive feedback: In the case of gastrin and cholecystokinin (CCK), their release encourages the release of digestive enzymes and bile, facilitating food digestion when needed.

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30
Q

Proximal

A

closer to the point of attachment to the body

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31
Q

Accessory organs

A
  • Salivary Glands
  • Liver
  • Gallbladder
  • Pancreas
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32
Q

Colonoscopy

A

Test used to detect cancer in the colon by using a tube going through the anus to the colon

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33
Q

Type 1 vs type 2 diabetes

A

Type 1- Autoimmune and does not produce insulin because pancreatic cells are killed. They don’t get glucose.

Symptoms: Low energy, frequent urination, excessive thirst, blurred vision

Type 2- Produces insulin but not able to use it. Possibly reversible.

Symptoms: increased hunger, slow-healing sores, fatigue

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34
Q

Urinary System

A

Kidneys, urinary bladder

Controls water balance in the body
Removes wastes from blood and excretes them

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35
Q

Action potential

A

Nerve impulses that pass from one end of the neuron to the other

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36
Q

Posterior/ Dorsal

A

The butt side of the body/ Or the back side(for humans)

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37
Q

Metabolism

A

The chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life

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38
Q

Positive Feedback

A

When something is amplified to create change

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39
Q

Peristalsis

A

A process in which a series of involuntary muscular contractions move food through the digestive tract

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40
Q

Lymphatic System

A

Thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels

Returns fluid to blood
Defends against pathogens

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41
Q

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A

A part of the autonomic nervous system

  • “Rest and digest” system
  • Saves energy, calms down
    systems or arousal levels; heartbeat slows
  • Frontal Lobe and more
    evolved brain areas active(you are thinking logically and have self-control)
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42
Q

Pharynx Function

A

aka the throat
Swallowing occurs

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43
Q

Integumentary System

A

Skin, hair, nails

Encloses internal body structures
Site of many sensory receptors

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44
Q

What does a squamous cell look like(specifically its nuclei)? Cuboidal? Columnar?

A
  • Flat and thin
  • Square or really circular
  • Tall and thin
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45
Q

List all directional terms for the body

A
  • Superior/Inferior
  • Anterior/ventral; Posterior/dorsal
  • Medial/ Lateral
  • Proximal/ Distal
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46
Q

Salivary glands and their locations and functions

A

Functions: Manufactures saliva and empty into the mouth

  • Parotid gland- largest and by the ear
  • Submandibular/ Submaxillary gland- near the lower jaw
  • Sublingual gland- Under the tongue
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47
Q

Subdivisions of the Brain stem and their functions

A
  • Midbrain- top part of brain stem; center for certain reflexes involving the eye and the ear
  • Pons- Middle part of brain stem; Connecting link between cerebellum and spinal cord, certain involuntary reflexes also like regulating respiration, sleep, and facial sensations.
  • Medulla Oblongata- bottom part of brain stem; Important reflex center that controls vital autonomic functions, such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure. It also plays a role in things like coughing, swallowing, and vomiting.
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48
Q

Esophagus Function

A

Food is lubricated with mucus and pushed into the stomach

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49
Q

Divisions of nervous system

A

Central nervous system- brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system- All nerves outside the CNS- cranial and spinal nerves

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50
Q

Midsagittal vs Sagittal

A

Midsagittal- a cut directly down the middle of the body

Sagittal- cuts body into left and right

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51
Q

Gallbladder Function

A

Stores bile

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52
Q

Cardiovascular System

A

Heart and blood vessels

Delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues
Equalizes temperature in the body

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53
Q

Location(s) of simple columnar

A

Intestines

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54
Q

Cerebellum

A
  • Made up of three parts- middle portion and two lateral hemispheres
  • Outer area is gray matter and inner is largely white matter

Functions:
- Helps coordinate voluntary muscles to ensure smooth, orderly function
- Helps maintain balance in standing, walking, and sitting
- Helps maintain muscle tone so that muscle fibers are slightly tensed and ready to produce changes in positions as quickly as necessary

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55
Q

How does bile travel into the digestive tract? Also, how does bile function in digestion?

A

When food enters the small intestine, bile is released from the gallbladder into the common bile duct, which connects to the duodenum.

In digestion, bile functions by emulsifying fats, breaking them down into smaller droplets, which helps increase the surface area and promotes efficient fat absorption.

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56
Q

Explain the role of neurotransmitters in impulse transmission at a synapse.

A

When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, vesicles filled with neurotransmitters are released into the synapse and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. This binding triggers a response in the postsynaptic cell. The signal is then terminated by neurotransmitter breakdown or reuptake into the presynaptic neuron.

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57
Q

Skeletal System

A

Cartilage, bones, joints

Supports the body
Enables movements with the muscular system

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58
Q

Different proteins in Plasma Membrane and their Functions

A
  • Protein Channel/ Gated channel- Allows passage of specific substances such as ions
  • Cotransporter- Change shape as they shuttle substances across the membrane
  • Receptor- Allows substances to attach to the protein and ultimately the membrane
  • Anchor protein- firmly attaches a protein to the membrane itself, essentially “anchoring” it in place
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59
Q

How are insulin and glucagon used to maintain homeostasis?

A

Insulin and glucagon are hormones produced by the pancreas to regulate blood glucose levels and maintain homeostasis. When blood glucose levels are high, beta cells produce insulin is released into the liver. This triggers transduction and Glut 4 vesicles to put channel proteins on the outside of the liver cell. These proteins allow glucose to enter and the blood glucose lowers.

Conversely, when blood glucose levels are low, glucagon is created by alpha cells and released into the liver. This triggers glucose to move out of the liver and raise blood sugar.

60
Q

Large Intestine Functions

A

Mass movements and defecation(poop)

61
Q

Liver Functions

A
  • Production of bile
  • Production of proteins
  • Storage of glycogen
  • Storage of vitamins (A, D, E, K,
    B12, and iron)
  • Clears bilirubin (from dead red
    blood cells)
  • Makes urea from amino acids
  • Detoxification
62
Q

What do these endings mean?
- logy
- tomy

A
  • study of
  • cutting, incision of
63
Q

Frontal/ coronal plane

A

Cut made between front and back of body

64
Q

Mouth Functions

A
  • Receives food
  • Breaks food into small portions
  • Mixes food with saliva
  • Moves controlled amounts of food toward the throat to be swallowed
65
Q

Why is water important in metabolism?

A

All reactions have to happen in aqueous solutions and everything has to be dissolved in the blood so that it can be carried around

66
Q

Ventral cavity subdivisions

A

Thoracic cavity- above the diaphragm, including heart, lungs
Diaphragm
Abdominal cavity- Digestive system
Pelvic cavity- Urinary bladder, rectum

67
Q

Muscular System

A

Skeletal muscles and tendons

Enables movement with skeletal system
Helps maintain body temperature

68
Q

Medial

A

Towards the middle of the body

69
Q

Subdivisions of the abdomen

A

Starting at top right corner(on a picture/ left on body)

Left hypochondriac
Epigastric
Right hypochondriac

Middle row:
Left lumbar
Umbilical
Right lumbar

Bottom row:
Left iliac
Hypogastric
Right iliac

70
Q

Homeostasis

A

When your body maintains a state of internal balance

71
Q

Myelin/ myelin sheath

A

White fatty substance that insulates and protects the axon. It speeds up conduction because the myelin causes action potentials to jump from node to node.

72
Q

Simple epithelial tissue

A

A single layer of cells that is best at absorbing and secreting material

73
Q

Dorsal cavity subdivisions

A

Cranial cavity- brain
Spinal cavity- spinal cord

74
Q

Inferior

A

Below the hips

75
Q

Superior

A

Above the hips

76
Q

Location(s) of pseudostratified epithelium

A

Respiratory tract

77
Q

Acids

A

Chemical substance capable of releasing a hydrogen ion(H+) when dissolved in water

78
Q

Axons

A

Neuron fibers that conduct impulses AWAY from the cell body

79
Q

Building blocks of:
- carbs
- lipids
- proteins
- nucleic acids

A
  • Monosaccharides
  • Glycerol and fatty acids
  • Amino acids
  • Nucleotides
80
Q

Digestive Tract organs

A
  • Mouth
  • Pharynx
  • Esophagus
  • Stomach
  • Small and Large Intestine
81
Q

Meninges

A

Three layers of connective tissue that surround the brain and spinal cord

Innermost to Outermost:
- Pia mater
- Arachnoid
- Dura mater

82
Q

Anterior/ Ventral(in humans)

A

The belly side of the body/ Or the front side(for humans)

83
Q

4 lobes of the cerebral hemisphere

A
  • Frontal lobe
  • Parietal Lobe
  • Temporal Lobe
  • Occipital Lobe
84
Q

Physiology

A

Study of how the body functions

85
Q

Female Reproductive System

A

Mammary glands, Ovaries, Uterus

Produces sex hormones and gametes
Supports embryo/fetus until birth
Produces milk for infant

86
Q

Think of three examples of homeostasis

A
  • Maintaining body temp
  • Maintaining pH
  • Regulation of blood pressure
87
Q

Nervous system

A

Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves

Detects and processes sensory information
Activates bodily responses

88
Q

How do villi function in absorption?

A

Villi are small, finger-like projections in the small intestine that increase the surface area for nutrient absorption. Each villus contains microvilli on its surface, further enhancing this surface area. The rich blood supply in the villi helps transport absorbed nutrients throughout the body.

89
Q

Explain how the numbers on the pH scale relate to acidity and alkalinity.

A

The scale is from 0 to 14. 0 is the most acidic and 14 is the most basic. 7 is neutral

90
Q

Distal

A

farther from the point of attachment to the body

91
Q

Respiratory System

A

Nasal passage, trachea, lungs

Removes carbon dioxide from the body
Delivers oxygen to the blood

92
Q

Catabolism

A

When complex substances are broken down into simpler substances

93
Q

Name the 4 macromolecules

A

Carbs, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids

94
Q

Absorption

A

The transfer of nutrients from the digestive tract to the circulation

95
Q

Describe the levels of organization

A
  • Chemicals
  • Cells
  • Tissues
  • Organs
  • Organ systems
  • Organism
96
Q

Stratified epithelial tissue

A

Multiple layers of epithelial tissue that is best at protection

97
Q

Enzyme

A

Proteins that speed up chemical reactions

98
Q

Male Reproductive System

A

Epididymis, testes

Produces sex hormones and gametes
Delivers gametes to female

99
Q

3 main functions of the digestive system

A

Digestion, absorption, and elimination

100
Q

3 major steps in cell signaling pathway and explain each step

A

1) Reception- A ligand(signal molecule) fits into the protein receptor and changes the receptor’s shape as a result.

2) Transduction- lots of chemical reactions occur in the cell.

3) Response- Activation of cellular response occurs. Ex: mitosis

101
Q

Gastroenteritis

A

Vomiting and Diarrhea- your body’s way of getting rid of the bacteria inside

102
Q

Scurvy

A

Vitamin C deficiency- most likely due to not enough of fruits and vegetables. Your collagen cannot be replaced so tissues break down.

Symptoms:
- Bleeding gums
- Slow healing wounds
- Tooth loss

103
Q

Celiac Disease

A

Allergy to gluten that damages your villi. It leaves your body unable to absorb nutrients necessary for health and growth. Gluten in your diet triggers the immune cells to attack the villi of the small intestine.

Symptoms:
- Diarrhea
- Nausea/ Vomiting

104
Q

What does the ending “-itis” indicate?

A

Swelling or inflammation

105
Q

Stomach ulcers

A

Stress and diet play a role in their severity but is not the cause. Also, h. pylori is the bacteria associated with ulcers.

106
Q

Cirrhosis

A

Liver failure. The #1 cause is alcoholism and drugs(like Tylenol overdose).

107
Q

Jaundice

A

Liver is not functioning and it is failing to clear the bilirubin. It causes a yellowing of the skin and eyes.

108
Q

Gallstones

A

Bile salts mixed with cholesterol. They are painful when stuck in the cystic or common bile duct. They could become infected and lots of right upper quadrant pain, fever, vomiting, etc.

109
Q

Crohn’s disease

A

Autoimmune disorder that deals with the large intestine.

Affects:
- Water Reabsorption
-Villi- villi have thicker walls and cannot absorb things. It also has big cracks in its wall.
- Feces- Diarrhea and Constipation

110
Q

Hepatic Lobule

A

Unit of liver cell- the hexagonal shape

111
Q

Central vein

A

Drains blood away from the liver lobule

112
Q

Hepatocytes

A

Hepat- liver
Cyte- cell

Liver cells

113
Q

Triad

A

The hepatic artery and portal vein that supply blood to the liver lobule and the bile duct that drains bile from the liver lobule.

114
Q

Sinusoids

A

Removes detoxified substances

115
Q

Functions of the blood

A

-Transports things
- Maintains fluid/solid homeostasis
- Distributes heat
- Immunity

116
Q

Main components of blood

A

Plasma- liquid, mostly water, anything that can dissolve, 55% of blood
Red blood cells(WBC)- 45% of blood
White blood cells and platelets- less than 1% of blood

117
Q

Describe the formation of blood cells.

A

formed in the bone marrow through a process called hematopoiesis, where specialized cells called “stem cells” gradually mature and differentiate into the three types of blood cells: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets

118
Q

Main components of plasma

A

Albumins, Globulins, Fibrinogen

119
Q

Plasma Functions

A
  • Transport nutrients, gases,
    vitamins, proteins, etc.
  • Regulate fluids and
    electrolytes
  • Maintain pH levels
120
Q

Red Blood Cell(RBC) Function

A

carries oxygen from our lungs to the rest of our bodies. Then they make the return trip, taking carbon dioxide back to our lungs to be exhaled.

121
Q

White Blood Cell(WBC) Function

A

the body’s primary defense mechanism against infection by fighting off bacteria, viruses, and other foreign invaders

122
Q

Sickle cell anemia symptoms

A

Low RBC count
Low O2 cells

A sickle cell RBC is stiff and gets stuck in the liver. Also people with the heterozygous sickle cell trait(Ss) are resistant to malaria.

123
Q

Platelet Functions

A

They help clot our blood to heal scabs and cuts

124
Q

What is the control center for blood glucose?

A

Pancreas

125
Q

Alpha cells

A

Produce glucagon

126
Q

Beta cells

A

Produce insulin

127
Q

What is glucose stored as?

A

Glycogen

128
Q

Oblique plane

A

Diagonal

129
Q

Which part of the phospholipid is hydrophilic(water loving)? Hydrophobic( water “hating”)?

A

The head; The fatty acid tails

130
Q

When your body digests fats)lipids) vs sugars such as glucose, you obtain more energy from which one?

A

Lipids because there are more bonds to break which means there is more energy to release.

131
Q

What ending do enzymes tend to have?

A

”- ase”

132
Q

Glucose chemical formula

A

C6 H12 O6

133
Q

Motor neurons

A

Carries impulses from the CNS

OUTGOING

134
Q

Sensory neurons

A

Carries impulses to the CNS

INCOMING

135
Q

Interneurons

A

Carries impulses inside the interneurons

136
Q

Gray matter vs white matter

A

Gray- unmyelinated, slower

White- myelinated, fast because it jumps

137
Q

Norepinephrine

A

Stimulates heart but lowers digestion which inhibits Norep receptors in the heart which decreases heart rate and strength which decreases blood pressure.

138
Q

Explain why stomach lining cells produce pepsinogen instead of pepsin. How is pepsin converted into pepsin?

A

Chief cells produce pepsinogen because it is inactive and harmless compared to pepsin. Pepsinogen is then converted into pepsin when it is mixed with HCl.

139
Q

Cholecystokinin(CCK)

A

Hormone that causes gallbladder to contract and secrete bile

140
Q

Bicarbonate ion

A

Secreted by pancreas to raise chyme’s pH

141
Q

Lactase

A

Intestinal enzyme that breaks down the sugar in milk

142
Q

Ghrelin

A

Hormone that makes you feel hungry

143
Q

Nuclease

A

enzyme that digests DNA

144
Q

Goblet cells

A

Secrete mucus

145
Q

Gastrin

A

Hormone that causes stomach to secrete when food is present

146
Q

Enterokinase

A

Enzyme that converts trypsinogen to trypsin

Anatomy (7 decks)

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