Final Flashcards
Digestive System
Stomach, liver, gallbladder, large and small intestine
Processes food for use by the body
Removes wastes from undigested food
Explain the role of enzymes in digestion and give examples of these enzymes
Enzymes in digestion act as catalysts that break down large food molecules into smaller, absorbable units.
Ex:
- Amylase(salivary and pancreatic): breaks down carbs into simple sugars
- Lipase(intestines): breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol
- Pepsin(stomach) and Trypsin(pancreas): breaks down proteins into amino acids.
Anatomy
Study of body structure
Salts
The product of a reaction between an acid and a base
Stomach Function
Storage pouch, digestive organ, churns food
Anabolism
When simple substances construct complex substances
Examples of a nucleotides
Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine
Dendrites
Neuron fibers that conduct impulses TO the cell body
Competitive and Noncompetitive Inhibition
In competitive inhibition, an inhibitor molecule is similar enough to a substrate that it can bind to the enzyme’s active site to stop it from binding to the substrate. This slows down or stops the reaction from occurring. It “competes” with the substrate to bind to the enzyme.
In non-competitive inhibition, inhibitor molecules bind to an enzyme at the allosteric site. This still slows down or stops the reaction from occurring.
Negative feedback
When the system occurs until it is returned to its original state
Endocrine System
Pituitary gland, thryoid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, testes, ovaries
Secretes hormones
Regulates bodily processes
Location(s) of stratified squamous
Esophagus, skin, mouth
Function of ___ in Plasma Membrane:
- Phospholipid Bilayer
- Cholesterol
- Carbs/ Glycoproteins/ Glycolipids
- It is selectively permeable and decides what to let in and out of the cell.
- Makes the membrane stronger and more flexible
- Helps make cells more recognizable
Schwann cells
When the myelin is a cell
List three planes of division of the body
- Frontal/coronal plane
- Sagittal Plane
- Transverse/ horizontal plane
Lateral
Towards the side of the body
Compare and contrast the exocrine vs endocrine portions of the pancreas.
Exocrine- Secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine to aid in digestion.
Endocrine- Regulates blood glucose levels by secreting hormones like insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin into the bloodstream.
Plasma Membrane
Outer layer of the cell
How do enzymes work?
They only work with specific substrates and do only one job. They are not used up or changed by the reactions.
Give a description of an action potential
Resting state- -70 mV; More sodium outside and more potassium inside
Depolarization- Sodium goes inside; 40 mV
Repolarization- Potassium goes out
Hyperpolarization- Lots of potassium leaving makes the inside of the cell really negative
Calcium helps the neurotransmitters release
Resting state
Sympathetic nervous system
One part of the autonomic nervous system.
Deals with emotions(lower brain region)
Fight or flight response system to environmental stressors; uses energy and increases blood pressure and heartbeat. You are not rational or reasonable in this state of mind.
Composition of the Plasma Membrane
- Phospholipid bilayer
- Cholesterol between the phospholipids
- Carbs- on top of proteins(glycoproteins) or lipids(glycolipids)
- Different types of proteins are throughout the membrane
Innermost to outermost layers of the wall of the digestive tract and functions
- Mucosa- absorption and secretion
- Submucosa- blood vessels
- Smooth muscle- muscular layer and pushes food
- Serosa- lubrication
Small Intestine Functions
- Secretion of mucus to protect the lining
- Minimal peristalsis occurs
- Digestion
- Villi in the mucosa absorb nutrients
Bases
Chemical substance that can accept(react with) a hydrogen ion(H+). Most release a hydroxide ion (OH-) as well.
Nodes of Ranvier
The small spaces between Schwann cells that help speed nerve impulse conduction
Transverse/Horizontal Plane
Cut made between top and bottom of body
What does a nucleotide contain?
A nitrogenous base, a sugar, and a phosphate
Explain the use of feedback in regulating digestion and give several examples
Feedback mechanisms regulate digestion by adjusting digestive processes based on internal signals, ensuring homeostasis.
Negative feedback: When food enters the stomach, it triggers the release of gastrin, which stimulates acid production. As stomach acid rises, it inhibits further gastrin release to prevent excessive acidity.
Positive feedback: In the case of gastrin and cholecystokinin (CCK), their release encourages the release of digestive enzymes and bile, facilitating food digestion when needed.
Proximal
closer to the point of attachment to the body
Accessory organs
- Salivary Glands
- Liver
- Gallbladder
- Pancreas
Colonoscopy
Test used to detect cancer in the colon by using a tube going through the anus to the colon
Type 1 vs type 2 diabetes
Type 1- Autoimmune and does not produce insulin because pancreatic cells are killed. They don’t get glucose.
Symptoms: Low energy, frequent urination, excessive thirst, blurred vision
Type 2- Produces insulin but not able to use it. Possibly reversible.
Symptoms: increased hunger, slow-healing sores, fatigue
Urinary System
Kidneys, urinary bladder
Controls water balance in the body
Removes wastes from blood and excretes them
Action potential
Nerve impulses that pass from one end of the neuron to the other
Posterior/ Dorsal
The butt side of the body/ Or the back side(for humans)
Metabolism
The chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life
Positive Feedback
When something is amplified to create change
Peristalsis
A process in which a series of involuntary muscular contractions move food through the digestive tract
Lymphatic System
Thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels
Returns fluid to blood
Defends against pathogens
Parasympathetic Nervous System
A part of the autonomic nervous system
- “Rest and digest” system
- Saves energy, calms down
systems or arousal levels; heartbeat slows - Frontal Lobe and more
evolved brain areas active(you are thinking logically and have self-control)
Pharynx Function
aka the throat
Swallowing occurs
Integumentary System
Skin, hair, nails
Encloses internal body structures
Site of many sensory receptors
What does a squamous cell look like(specifically its nuclei)? Cuboidal? Columnar?
- Flat and thin
- Square or really circular
- Tall and thin
List all directional terms for the body
- Superior/Inferior
- Anterior/ventral; Posterior/dorsal
- Medial/ Lateral
- Proximal/ Distal
Salivary glands and their locations and functions
Functions: Manufactures saliva and empty into the mouth
- Parotid gland- largest and by the ear
- Submandibular/ Submaxillary gland- near the lower jaw
- Sublingual gland- Under the tongue
Subdivisions of the Brain stem and their functions
- Midbrain- top part of brain stem; center for certain reflexes involving the eye and the ear
- Pons- Middle part of brain stem; Connecting link between cerebellum and spinal cord, certain involuntary reflexes also like regulating respiration, sleep, and facial sensations.
- Medulla Oblongata- bottom part of brain stem; Important reflex center that controls vital autonomic functions, such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure. It also plays a role in things like coughing, swallowing, and vomiting.
Esophagus Function
Food is lubricated with mucus and pushed into the stomach
Divisions of nervous system
Central nervous system- brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system- All nerves outside the CNS- cranial and spinal nerves
Midsagittal vs Sagittal
Midsagittal- a cut directly down the middle of the body
Sagittal- cuts body into left and right
Gallbladder Function
Stores bile
Cardiovascular System
Heart and blood vessels
Delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues
Equalizes temperature in the body
Location(s) of simple columnar
Intestines
Cerebellum
- Made up of three parts- middle portion and two lateral hemispheres
- Outer area is gray matter and inner is largely white matter
Functions:
- Helps coordinate voluntary muscles to ensure smooth, orderly function
- Helps maintain balance in standing, walking, and sitting
- Helps maintain muscle tone so that muscle fibers are slightly tensed and ready to produce changes in positions as quickly as necessary
How does bile travel into the digestive tract? Also, how does bile function in digestion?
When food enters the small intestine, bile is released from the gallbladder into the common bile duct, which connects to the duodenum.
In digestion, bile functions by emulsifying fats, breaking them down into smaller droplets, which helps increase the surface area and promotes efficient fat absorption.
Explain the role of neurotransmitters in impulse transmission at a synapse.
When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, vesicles filled with neurotransmitters are released into the synapse and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. This binding triggers a response in the postsynaptic cell. The signal is then terminated by neurotransmitter breakdown or reuptake into the presynaptic neuron.
Skeletal System
Cartilage, bones, joints
Supports the body
Enables movements with the muscular system
Different proteins in Plasma Membrane and their Functions
- Protein Channel/ Gated channel- Allows passage of specific substances such as ions
- Cotransporter- Change shape as they shuttle substances across the membrane
- Receptor- Allows substances to attach to the protein and ultimately the membrane
- Anchor protein- firmly attaches a protein to the membrane itself, essentially “anchoring” it in place
How are insulin and glucagon used to maintain homeostasis?
Insulin and glucagon are hormones produced by the pancreas to regulate blood glucose levels and maintain homeostasis. When blood glucose levels are high, beta cells produce insulin is released into the liver. This triggers transduction and Glut 4 vesicles to put channel proteins on the outside of the liver cell. These proteins allow glucose to enter and the blood glucose lowers.
Conversely, when blood glucose levels are low, glucagon is created by alpha cells and released into the liver. This triggers glucose to move out of the liver and raise blood sugar.
Large Intestine Functions
Mass movements and defecation(poop)
Liver Functions
- Production of bile
- Production of proteins
- Storage of glycogen
- Storage of vitamins (A, D, E, K,
B12, and iron) - Clears bilirubin (from dead red
blood cells) - Makes urea from amino acids
- Detoxification
What do these endings mean?
- logy
- tomy
- study of
- cutting, incision of
Frontal/ coronal plane
Cut made between front and back of body
Mouth Functions
- Receives food
- Breaks food into small portions
- Mixes food with saliva
- Moves controlled amounts of food toward the throat to be swallowed
Why is water important in metabolism?
All reactions have to happen in aqueous solutions and everything has to be dissolved in the blood so that it can be carried around
Ventral cavity subdivisions
Thoracic cavity- above the diaphragm, including heart, lungs
Diaphragm
Abdominal cavity- Digestive system
Pelvic cavity- Urinary bladder, rectum
Muscular System
Skeletal muscles and tendons
Enables movement with skeletal system
Helps maintain body temperature
Medial
Towards the middle of the body
Subdivisions of the abdomen
Starting at top right corner(on a picture/ left on body)
Left hypochondriac
Epigastric
Right hypochondriac
Middle row:
Left lumbar
Umbilical
Right lumbar
Bottom row:
Left iliac
Hypogastric
Right iliac
Homeostasis
When your body maintains a state of internal balance
Myelin/ myelin sheath
White fatty substance that insulates and protects the axon. It speeds up conduction because the myelin causes action potentials to jump from node to node.
Simple epithelial tissue
A single layer of cells that is best at absorbing and secreting material
Dorsal cavity subdivisions
Cranial cavity- brain
Spinal cavity- spinal cord
Inferior
Below the hips
Superior
Above the hips
Location(s) of pseudostratified epithelium
Respiratory tract
Acids
Chemical substance capable of releasing a hydrogen ion(H+) when dissolved in water
Axons
Neuron fibers that conduct impulses AWAY from the cell body
Building blocks of:
- carbs
- lipids
- proteins
- nucleic acids
- Monosaccharides
- Glycerol and fatty acids
- Amino acids
- Nucleotides
Digestive Tract organs
- Mouth
- Pharynx
- Esophagus
- Stomach
- Small and Large Intestine
Meninges
Three layers of connective tissue that surround the brain and spinal cord
Innermost to Outermost:
- Pia mater
- Arachnoid
- Dura mater
Anterior/ Ventral(in humans)
The belly side of the body/ Or the front side(for humans)
4 lobes of the cerebral hemisphere
- Frontal lobe
- Parietal Lobe
- Temporal Lobe
- Occipital Lobe
Physiology
Study of how the body functions
Female Reproductive System
Mammary glands, Ovaries, Uterus
Produces sex hormones and gametes
Supports embryo/fetus until birth
Produces milk for infant
Think of three examples of homeostasis
- Maintaining body temp
- Maintaining pH
- Regulation of blood pressure
Nervous system
Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves
Detects and processes sensory information
Activates bodily responses
How do villi function in absorption?
Villi are small, finger-like projections in the small intestine that increase the surface area for nutrient absorption. Each villus contains microvilli on its surface, further enhancing this surface area. The rich blood supply in the villi helps transport absorbed nutrients throughout the body.
Explain how the numbers on the pH scale relate to acidity and alkalinity.
The scale is from 0 to 14. 0 is the most acidic and 14 is the most basic. 7 is neutral
Distal
farther from the point of attachment to the body
Respiratory System
Nasal passage, trachea, lungs
Removes carbon dioxide from the body
Delivers oxygen to the blood
Catabolism
When complex substances are broken down into simpler substances
Name the 4 macromolecules
Carbs, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids
Absorption
The transfer of nutrients from the digestive tract to the circulation
Describe the levels of organization
- Chemicals
- Cells
- Tissues
- Organs
- Organ systems
- Organism
Stratified epithelial tissue
Multiple layers of epithelial tissue that is best at protection
Enzyme
Proteins that speed up chemical reactions
Male Reproductive System
Epididymis, testes
Produces sex hormones and gametes
Delivers gametes to female
3 main functions of the digestive system
Digestion, absorption, and elimination
3 major steps in cell signaling pathway and explain each step
1) Reception- A ligand(signal molecule) fits into the protein receptor and changes the receptor’s shape as a result.
2) Transduction- lots of chemical reactions occur in the cell.
3) Response- Activation of cellular response occurs. Ex: mitosis
Gastroenteritis
Vomiting and Diarrhea- your body’s way of getting rid of the bacteria inside
Scurvy
Vitamin C deficiency- most likely due to not enough of fruits and vegetables. Your collagen cannot be replaced so tissues break down.
Symptoms:
- Bleeding gums
- Slow healing wounds
- Tooth loss
Celiac Disease
Allergy to gluten that damages your villi. It leaves your body unable to absorb nutrients necessary for health and growth. Gluten in your diet triggers the immune cells to attack the villi of the small intestine.
Symptoms:
- Diarrhea
- Nausea/ Vomiting
What does the ending “-itis” indicate?
Swelling or inflammation
Stomach ulcers
Stress and diet play a role in their severity but is not the cause. Also, h. pylori is the bacteria associated with ulcers.
Cirrhosis
Liver failure. The #1 cause is alcoholism and drugs(like Tylenol overdose).
Jaundice
Liver is not functioning and it is failing to clear the bilirubin. It causes a yellowing of the skin and eyes.
Gallstones
Bile salts mixed with cholesterol. They are painful when stuck in the cystic or common bile duct. They could become infected and lots of right upper quadrant pain, fever, vomiting, etc.
Crohn’s disease
Autoimmune disorder that deals with the large intestine.
Affects:
- Water Reabsorption
-Villi- villi have thicker walls and cannot absorb things. It also has big cracks in its wall.
- Feces- Diarrhea and Constipation
Hepatic Lobule
Unit of liver cell- the hexagonal shape
Central vein
Drains blood away from the liver lobule
Hepatocytes
Hepat- liver
Cyte- cell
Liver cells
Triad
The hepatic artery and portal vein that supply blood to the liver lobule and the bile duct that drains bile from the liver lobule.
Sinusoids
Removes detoxified substances
Functions of the blood
-Transports things
- Maintains fluid/solid homeostasis
- Distributes heat
- Immunity
Main components of blood
Plasma- liquid, mostly water, anything that can dissolve, 55% of blood
Red blood cells(WBC)- 45% of blood
White blood cells and platelets- less than 1% of blood
Describe the formation of blood cells.
formed in the bone marrow through a process called hematopoiesis, where specialized cells called “stem cells” gradually mature and differentiate into the three types of blood cells: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
Main components of plasma
Albumins, Globulins, Fibrinogen
Plasma Functions
- Transport nutrients, gases,
vitamins, proteins, etc. - Regulate fluids and
electrolytes - Maintain pH levels
Red Blood Cell(RBC) Function
carries oxygen from our lungs to the rest of our bodies. Then they make the return trip, taking carbon dioxide back to our lungs to be exhaled.
White Blood Cell(WBC) Function
the body’s primary defense mechanism against infection by fighting off bacteria, viruses, and other foreign invaders
Sickle cell anemia symptoms
Low RBC count
Low O2 cells
A sickle cell RBC is stiff and gets stuck in the liver. Also people with the heterozygous sickle cell trait(Ss) are resistant to malaria.
Platelet Functions
They help clot our blood to heal scabs and cuts
What is the control center for blood glucose?
Pancreas
Alpha cells
Produce glucagon
Beta cells
Produce insulin
What is glucose stored as?
Glycogen
Oblique plane
Diagonal
Which part of the phospholipid is hydrophilic(water loving)? Hydrophobic( water “hating”)?
The head; The fatty acid tails
When your body digests fats)lipids) vs sugars such as glucose, you obtain more energy from which one?
Lipids because there are more bonds to break which means there is more energy to release.
What ending do enzymes tend to have?
”- ase”
Glucose chemical formula
C6 H12 O6
Motor neurons
Carries impulses from the CNS
OUTGOING
Sensory neurons
Carries impulses to the CNS
INCOMING
Interneurons
Carries impulses inside the interneurons
Gray matter vs white matter
Gray- unmyelinated, slower
White- myelinated, fast because it jumps
Norepinephrine
Stimulates heart but lowers digestion which inhibits Norep receptors in the heart which decreases heart rate and strength which decreases blood pressure.
Explain why stomach lining cells produce pepsinogen instead of pepsin. How is pepsin converted into pepsin?
Chief cells produce pepsinogen because it is inactive and harmless compared to pepsin. Pepsinogen is then converted into pepsin when it is mixed with HCl.
Cholecystokinin(CCK)
Hormone that causes gallbladder to contract and secrete bile
Bicarbonate ion
Secreted by pancreas to raise chyme’s pH
Lactase
Intestinal enzyme that breaks down the sugar in milk
Ghrelin
Hormone that makes you feel hungry
Nuclease
enzyme that digests DNA
Goblet cells
Secrete mucus
Gastrin
Hormone that causes stomach to secrete when food is present
Enterokinase
Enzyme that converts trypsinogen to trypsin
