Factors: Italy Flashcards
How far do you agree that the strength of Austrian opposition to Italian unification was the principle reason for the slow progress made in the years 1830-48?
-Austrian Opposition:
Metternich’s Postal convention checked all correspondences between states under Austrian scrutiny
Metternich: “Italian affairs do not exist”
Police systems and spy networks set up in every state
Austrian ministers in every court
Austria used family alliances to keep control e.g. Dukes of Tuscany and Modena
-Socio Economic Divides:
Only 2.5% of the population spoke Italian
90% of the population were catholic and received a backwards education
The south was riddled with disease - Naples 1836, 65,000 died of Cholera
Naples life expectancy was just 24 in the 1840s
Poor harvests led to people starving
Peasants cared more for their own survival than unifying Italy
-Divided Politics:
The liberals wanted a constitutional monarchy
The nationalists wanted to unite Italy following the principles of the risorgimento
The Radicals wanted a Republic
Peasants cared more for their own survival than politics
Most received education from the church and had no understanding of politics
-Weakness of Nationalism:
Carbonari: 60,000 members - mostly in the south
Spillo Negro in the Papal States - Mostly Anti Austrian
Young Italy formed in 1831 - Failures such as the Bandiera Brothers in 1833 and the failure to start an uprising in the Piedmontese army
Cultural influences such as books PromessiSposi–patriotic sentiment, music such as Rossini and Verdi only accessed by elite
The problem was that only the elite were interested in the ideas and they failed to get themasses involved in nationalism
They were divided in aims and all separate uprisings so easy to crush
‘Garibaldi’s contribution to the unification of Italy was outweighed by the problems that he created.’ How far do you agree with this statement?
-Garibaldi’s Successes:
Defense of the Roman Republic in 1849, good for Nationalist spirit
Trained and recruited volunteers for the 1859 war for Italy
Given control over 3000 men in 1859, created the Alpine Hunters and pushed the Austrians all the way back across the Ticino river to the Quadrilaterals
1860 - March of the thousand (1200 men)
Defeated 20,000 soldiers in Sicily using the help of local mafia and peasantry
Army grew to 60,000 strong
Handed all of the land gained over to Italy at Teano, in the greatest act of Italian Unification
Visited London in 1864 to help gain support for the liberation of Venice
-Garibaldi’s Failures:
Failure in the defense of the Roman Republic in 1849
Promised many things to the newly conquered South all of which weren’t affordable, land reforms and lower taxes
Created tensions in the south which seriously harmed social unification
Indirectly caused the Brigands’ war which again caused Italy huge issues in the future with unification
Garibaldi’s 4000 men tried to attack Rome again in 1867, led to more French troops being placed in Rome and limiting unification
How accurate is it to say that the military strength of Austria was the decisive factor in explaining the failure of the 1848-49 revolutions in Italy?
-Austria:
Counter revolutionary methods were used in Austrian controlled areas such as censorship, political prison and secret police
The victories over the Piedmontese army at Custozza in July 1848 and Novara March 1849 as well as the collapse of the Venetian Republic in August 1849 reflected the continuing strength of Austria in the faces of challenges to them
Metternich’s Postal convention checked all correspondences between states under Austrian scrutiny
Metternich: “Italian affairs do not exist”
Police systems and spy networks set up in every state
-Weakness of Piedmont
1848 revolutions taught Charles Albert and VEII that foreign dominance could not be ended in Northern Italy by Piedmont alone
The Papal Allocution, combined with Charles Albert’s refusal to accept recruits to the army unless they swore allegiance to him, meant that maintaining a well staffed army proved increasingly difficult
It is debatable how committed Charles Albert was to the 1848 revolutions, or whether he was more intent on preventing the growing republicanism in Milan and Venice from spreading to Piedmont
Piedmontese army crushed at Custozza and Novara
-Lack of revolutionary/popular support:
The revolutions served diverse and disparate aims:
Professionals classes in Milan and Venice were fighting for independence and a constitution
Sicily, Naples, the Duchies and Piedmont wanted to secure constitutions
Rome and Venice desired Republics
In Piedmont, the challenge was focused around the removal of the Austrians
Sicily the peasants revolted over food shortage and wanted independence
Milan the middle class rioted over tobacco prices
The fact that the causes and motivations of the revolutions made it easier for the Austrians and French to divide and rule, cementing the ease with which they failed. With a largely apathetic, yet highly numerous lower class, the ideas of Risorgimento failed to capture any unified spirit, instead epitomizing the divided Italian classes
-Pope:
Papal Allocution April 1848,signalsthat Pope would not support any nationalist cause and marks a turning point in attitudes towards a unified peninsula
Requested foreign support to restore the temporal power of the papacy, crushing Gioberti’s dreams of Neo-Guelphism and transforming the nationalist case from pro-Papacy to anti-Papacy
Many men defected or refused to join an army that did not have the blessing of the church
Exponents of Neo-Guelphism had now lost their leader and some became disillusioned with the revolutions
‘The process of Italian Unification in the years 1852-61, owed most to the work of Cavour.’ How far do you agree with this view?
-Work of Cavour:
Cavour had a very pragmatic nature
Setup Piedmont to prepare themselves to unify Italy - Building Canals, Railways, Electric Telegraph etc.
Sent 18000 troops to Crimea to secure support from Britain and France
Main point of discussion at the Congress of Paris was the Italian Question
Setup the Pact of Plombieres with Napoleon for the 1858-59 war
Responded well to Garibaldi invading the South of Italy
-Work of Italians and VEII
Appointed Cavour to begin with
Consoled Napoleon III following Orsini’s assassination attempt
Served as a national figurehead for the country, good for foreign relations
Good for unifying the people of Italy, having a king
-Work of Garibaldi
Trained and recruited volunteers for the 1859 war for Italy
Given control over 3000 men in 1859, created the Alpine Hunters and pushed the Austrians all the way back across the Ticino river to the Quadrilaterals
1860 - March of the thousand (1200 men)
Defeated 20,000 soldiers in Sicily using the help of local mafia and peasantry
Army grew to 60,000 strong
Handed all of the land gained over to Italy at Teano, in the greatest act of Italian Unification
-Work of Napoleon III:
Attended the Pact of Plombieres with Piedmont to support the war with Austria
Sent 200,000 soldiers to help attack Austria
French troops played a significant role in the battles of Solferino and Magenta
Handed Lombardy over to the Italians after it was given to the French by the Austrians
Setup the treaty of Zurich which formally ended the war
How far do you agree that Mazzini and his nationalist supporters achieved very little in the years 1830-56?
-Mazzini’s Successes:
While in London in exile, Mazzini founded the National Italian Committee and also founded the “Society of the Friends of Italy” in 1851, which attracted widespread, radical support
Mazzini founded Young Italy in 1831 which had 50 000 members by 1833 and propounded the idea of a republican Italian Peninsula
He gave tremendous impetus to unification and no one else campaigned as long and as hard as he did
He was a great organizer of propaganda and made Italian nationalism a more talked about concept
-Mazzini’s Failures:
Liberals deemed him as dangerous
Rich people disliked him
His ideas appealed to limited social classes
His attitude stopped Italy getting support from France
Moderate liberals looked upon him as a dangerous radical and highlighted Italian divides
He was absent from Italy for long periods of time (40 years in total)
The actions of Young Italy mostly resulted in failure:
Tried to start a revolt with Garibaldi in 1831 but failed
In 1844 the Bandiera Brothers tried to start an uprising in Naples but failed
Attempted to start a mutiny in the Piedmont army and failed
‘Cavour was the driving force behind the events leading to the outbreak of the Second Italian War of Independence (1859)’ How far do you agree with this statement?
-Agree:
Cavour had a very pragmatic nature
Setup Piedmont to prepare themselves to unify Italy - Building Canals, Railways, Electric Telegraph etc.
Sent 18000 troops to Crimea to secure support from Britain and France
Main point of discussion at the Congress of Paris was the Italian Question
Setup the Pact of Plombieres with Napoleon for the 1858-59 war
Responded well to Garibaldi invading the South of Italy
Cavour established a series of free trade agreements with GB, FR and BEL which led to trade increasing by Trade increased by 300% during the 1850s
60,000 silk workers and 114,000 cotton workers meant wealth creation was happening. Cavour Canal built from 1857.Cavour encouraged foreign investment with Rothschild, a French banker, funding much of the train line linking Milan, Turin, Genoa and the French border
The Piedmontese railway system which covered ⅓ of the Italian Peninsula and was increased to 819km in the 1850s which allowed Cavour to transport soldiers and supplies across the country, such as the 1854 line that linked Milan, Turin, Genoa and the French Border
-Disagree:
Nationalism:
Nationalism offered peasants and middle classes an alternative to the European order
Mazzini founded Young Italy in 1831 which had 50 000 members by 1833 and propounded the idea of a republican Italian Peninsula
Failures: 1844 Bandiera Brothers were executed and martyred following an attempted invasion of Calabria. Failed revolution in Sicily in 1851-52. February 1853 uprising in Milan a huge failure and highlighted the weakness of Mazzini’s cause and tactics
National Society -Formed in 1857 by nationalist exiles living in Piedmont such as Daniele Manin, it promoted the cause of Italian unity with Piedmont and
encouraged nationalists across the country to accept Piedmontese
rule
Austrian Opposition:
Austrian opposition was everywhere: Satellite states of Venetia and Lombardy, indirect control of the Papal States through the Catholic pope, Metternich’s Postal Convention which checked all correspondences between states under Austrian scrutiny, stopping any infant alliances that could aid unity in the future
Metternich famously said “Italian affairs do not exist”
VE never forgave Austria and wanted revenge
The Congress of Paris in 1856 gave Cavour his opportunity to raise the oppression of Austria to other Great Powers
‘The Roman republic was so short lived because of a lack of strong leadership.’ How far do you agree with this statement?
-Lack of strong leadership:
The nature of the Roman Republic’s creation seriously weakened the Republic as it was rushed through and made up entirely of radical, middle class members
The natural leader of the Roman Republic, Mazzini, wasn’t even present in Rome during the uprising
When the Triumvirate did finally issue a constitution for Rome, in June 1849, it was too late, as they are on the verge of defeat
Triumvirate consisted of; Mazzini, Armellini and Saffi
Mazzini had been absent for 40 years prior to March 1849
-French Opposition:
Louis Napoleon was the newly appointed president of France and he was desperate to cement his precarious power base by winning over the support of the French Catholics
Napoleon sent 20,000 troops to support
Despite being blocked for two months by the heroics of Garibaldi the inevitable arrival of 20,000 French troops to the outskirts of Rome occurred in June 1849
-Opposition of Pius IX:
90% of the population was Catholic
Pius decided to issue his Papal Allocution which stated that war with Austria didn’t have his blessing and Charles Albert was the aggressor
Appointment of Rossi, an anti-liberal PM in Rome
These actions severely weakened the revolutionary spirit as many Italian Catholics were reluctant to suffer spiritual damage to support temporal politics
Once the Roman Republic was formed they were obviously the natural enemy of the pope and were spiritually condemned by the church, thus fatally damaging their strength
April 1849 when Pius held a meeting with his cardinals where he called for foreign intervention to help restore papal power in Rome
-Lack of support from Piedmont:
1848 revolutions taught Charles Albert and VEII that foreign dominance could not be ended in Northern Italy by Piedmont alone
The Papal Allocution, combined with Charles Albert’s refusal to accept recruits to the army unless they swore allegiance to him, meant that maintaining a well staffed army proved increasingly difficult
It is debatable how committed Charles Albert was to the 1848 revolutions, or whether he was more intent on preventing the growing republicanism in Milan and Venice from spreading to Piedmont
Piedmontese army crushed at Custozza and Novara
How far do you agree that the process of Italian unification, in the years 1859-70, resulted in the creation of an enlarged piedmont rather than a unified Italy?
-Enlarged Piedmont:
Piedmontisation was extremely unpopular among the Italian states:
Lombardy never got its own legal system
Piedmontese constitution used over all of Italy
Garibaldi handed over the South to Italy
Fixed plebiscites in unification
Land reforms promised in the south never came
22.7% of children died before 1st birthday
50% before 5th birthday
120,000 Italians emigrated
Removal of tariffs stripped southern industries of protection
North was industrialized and the south was abandoned with a struggling agricultural economy
Grist tax to pay for war debt, led to riots with 250 dead and 1000 wounded
2.5 billion Lire debt after wars
Brigands wars, 120,000 Italians vs 82,000 Brigands - more casualties in this war than all of wars of unification combined
-Unified Italy:
Majority of Italy geographically unified, bar a few places e.g. Istria and Trieste
Diplomatic recognition of the Italian Kingdom achieved
Nationalist tricolor adapted as flag and risorgimento promoted heavily
Civil service rewarding nationalism by providing jobs for war of unification veterans
Army to protect the newly unified Italy with 215,000 soldiers, 15,000 officers and 2 million in reserve
25% state expenditure was on the army
One king, VEII, a national figurehead, good for international relations and also seen as a statement against radicalism
How far do you agree that the main reason for the failure of both the 1830-32 and 1848-49 revolutions in Italy was a lack of popular support?
-Lack of popular Support:
Carbonari: 60,000 members - mostly in the south
Spillo Negro in the Papal States - Mostly Anti Austrian
Young Italy formed in 1831 - Failures such as the Bandiera Brothers in 1833 and the failure to start an uprising in the Piedmontese army
Cultural influences such as books I PromessiSposi–patriotic sentiment, music such as Rossini and Verdi only accessed by elite
The problem was that only the elite were interested in the ideas and they failed to get themasses involved in nationalism
They were divided in aims and all separate uprisings so easy to crush
-Austrian Opposition:
Metternich’s Postal convention checked all correspondences between states under Austrian scrutiny
Metternich: “Italian affairs do not exist”
Police systems and spy networks set up in every state
Austrian ministers in every court
Austria used family alliances to keep control e.g. Dukes of Tuscany and Modena
-Socio Economic Divides:
Only 2.5% of the population spoke Italian
90% of the population were catholic and received a backwards education
The south was riddled with disease - Naples 1836, 65,000 died of Cholera
Naples life expectancy was just 24 in the 1840s
Poor harvests led to people starving
Peasants cared more for their own survival than unifying Italy
-Divided Aims:
The liberals wanted a constitutional monarchy
The nationalists wanted to unite Italy following the principles of the risorgimento
The Radicals wanted a Republic
Peasants cared more for their own survival than politics
Most received education from the church and had no understanding of politics
How accurate is it to say that, in the years 1848-67, Garibaldi was more often a failure than a success in his attempts to unify Italy?
-Garibaldi’s Successes:
Defense of the Roman Republic in 1849, good for Nationalist spirit
Trained and recruited volunteers for the 1859 war for Italy
Given control over 3000 men in 1859, created the Alpine Hunters and pushed the Austrians all the way back across the Ticino river to the Quadrilaterals
1860 - March of the thousand (1200 men)
Defeated 20,000 soldiers in Sicily using the help of local mafia and peasantry
Army grew to 60,000 strong
Handed all of the land gained over to Italy at Teano, in the greatest act of Italian Unification
Visited London in 1864 to help gain support for the liberation of Venice
-Garibaldi’s Failures:
Failure in the defense of the Roman Republic in 1849
Promised many things to the newly conquered South all of which weren’t affordable, land reforms and lower taxes
Created tensions in the south which seriously harmed social unification
Indirectly caused the Brigands’ war which again caused Italy huge issues in the future with unification
Garibaldi’s 4000 men tried to attack Rome again in 1867, led to more French troops being placed in Rome and limiting unification
‘In the years 1849-70, Victor Emmanuel II played a symbolic role, rather than a leading role in the process of Italian unification.’ How far do you agree with this statement?
-Agree:
Never recognised as king of Italy by the Papacy
His Grido Di Dolore speech may have been written by Napoleon III
Personally controlled armed forces in 1866 war: deafeat at Custoza and Lissa (loss of 3 ships) despite outnumbering Austrian forces
VE II not the ‘first’ king of Italy
Suggested that Piedmont was taking over Italy
Disagree:
Appointed Cavour to begin with
Consoled Napoleon III following Orsini’s assassination attempt
Served as a national figurehead for the country, good for foreign relations
Good for unifying the people of Italy, having a king
Met with Garibaldi at Teano to annex the south of the country
Allowed nationalist refugees following 1848/49 revolutions. 30,000 exiles came to Piedmont
Allowed Statuto to remain (wanted by Austrians to limit calls for reform)
Played a diplomatic role in the pact of Plombieres. Clotilde (eldest daughter) married to Jerome Bonaparte
Grido di Dolore speech in Jan 1859 which inspired nationalists
Refused Napoleon’s suggestion to return part of Papal states to Rome in return for French withdrawal
Negotiated the September Convention for French with Napoleon III
Following Cavour’s death he took over foreign policy
Encouraged Garibaldi to destabilise Austria in Venetia
‘In the years 1862-70, the obstacles to Italian Unity that remained after the creation of the Kingdom on Italy were mainly overcome.’ How far do you agree with this statement?
-Agree:
Geographical divisions overcome:
After 1866, Venetia had now been annexed and the majority of geographical unification had been completed
After 1870 with the Franco Prussian war, it allowed the Italians to now invade and annex the Papal states, completing the Italian geographical unification
The Casati Laws were put in place to socially unify the country and begin to assimilate the South into Italy
The removal of tariffs economically unified the country leading to it all being one
Diplomatic recognition of the Italian Kingdom
Nationalist tricolor adopted as flag, risorgimento promoted
Army was taking recruits from all over Italy to unify people socially
-Disagree:
Land reforms promised to the south by Garibaldi never came as they were unaffordable
Garibaldi freed 12,000 convicts during his conquest of the south, they were still out of prison
Conscription of young men led to the Brigands war - 120,000 vs 82,000 - more casualties than all wars of unification combined
22.7% children died before their 1st birthday
50% before their 5th birthday
120,000 Italians emigrated
2.5 billion lire debt after the wars
Grist tax to pay for the debt - riots ensued - 250 dead and 1000 wounded
Pope didn’t recognise the new Italy until 1929
Pope declared himself a ‘prisoner in the Vatican’
How accurate is it to say that is was mainly the actions of Italians themselves that shaped Italian unification in the years 1858-70?
-Italians themselves:
Cavour:
Cavour had a very pragmatic nature
Setup Piedmont to prepare themselves to unify Italy - Building Canals, Railways, Electric Telegraph etc.
Sent 18000 troops to Crimea to secure support from Britain and France
Main point of discussion at the Congress of Paris was the Italian Question
Setup the Pact of Plombieres with Napoleon for the 1858-59 war
Responded well to Garibaldi invading the South of Italy
Cavour established a series of free trade agreements with GB, FR and BEL which led to trade increasing by Trade increased by 300% during the 1850s
60,000 silk workers and 114,000 cotton workers meant wealth creation was happening. Cavour Canal built from 1857.Cavour encouraged foreign investment with Rothschild, a French banker, funding much of the train line linking Milan, Turin, Genoa and the French border
The Piedmontese railway system which covered ⅓ of the Italian Peninsula and was increased to 819km in the 1850s which allowed Cavour to transport soldiers and supplies across the country, such as the 1854 line that linked Milan, Turin, Genoa and the French Border
VEII:
Appointed Cavour to begin with
Consoled Napoleon III following Orsini’s assassination attempt
Served as a national figurehead for the country, good for foreign relations
Good for unifying the people of Italy, having a king
-Foreign Powers:
France:
Sent 200,000 troops in the 1858 war where Italy eventually annexed Lombardy
Pact of Plombieres which allowed them to work together to invade
Prussia:
Invaded France in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian war leading to the withdrawal of French troops from Rome that allowed them to invade
War of 1866 where Prussia and Italy invaded Austria, led to the Italians eventually annexing Venetia
GB:
Lord John Russell supported Italy’s idea of self determination and limiting foreign interference in the Italian peninsula
Britain’s gunboat diplomacy allowed Garibaldi to cross the Messina straits and successfully complete his conquest of the South
-Garibaldi:
Trained and recruited volunteers for the 1859 war for Italy
Given control over 3000 men in 1859, created the Alpine Hunters and pushed the Austrians all the way back across the Ticino river to the Quadrilaterals
1860 - March of the thousand (1200 men)
Defeated 20,000 soldiers in Sicily using the help of local mafia and peasantry
Army grew to 60,000 strong
Handed all of the land gained over to Italy at Teano, in the greatest act of Italian Unification
Visited London in 1864 to help gain support for the liberation of Venice
How far did the events of 1830-1849 help to create social and political unity?
-Helped:
The Statuto - Instigated under Charles Albert and remained even after the 1848 revolutions as well, allowed a free and active political life in Piedmont - Allowed 30,000 liberal refugees to flee to Piedmont
The Statuto was limited due to it only representing 2.25% of the population
The failure of the 1848 revolution told the Nationalist groups that they needed to include the 90% peasant population in their uprisings and without them nothing would be achieved
The Roman Republic was emblematic of Italy being a more liberal, democratic state
Some social unity was created through the nationalist literary and artistic movement
-Hindered:
The 20 000 French troops entrenched in Rome supporting the reactionary pope was a clear barrier to political unity in the short term
It also meant in the longer term that the cause of unity had lost the support of Catholics, and nationalism became seen as anti-Clerical
Poor harvests in 1820 and 1840 caused political apathy in the lower social classes meaning that the cause of unity became a secondary concern in their mind, due to the threat of famine.
By 1840 life expectancy in Naples was just 24, meaning that these social problems had become an impediment to political unity. In 1836, 65,000 people died of cholera
Riots in 1820s and 1840 were about food shortages not politics
Mazzini’s ideas, however, were generally very alienating. The liberals viewed him as too radical and the radicals as too liberal
Mazzini being out of Italy for a total of 40 years, he became out of touch with the peasants and their difficulties, and made little contact with them. This prevented unity at this stage from being anything more than a movement for the literate political elite, never a mass movement.
How accurate is it to say that Mazzinian ideas had a limited political and social impact on progress towards unity between 1849?
-Accurate:
Mazzini’s ideas were never a mass movement, even at Young Italy’s height they only had 50,000 members
Mazzini was viewed as too radical and there were too many alternatives which people preferred to support, more liberal groups
Mazzini’s ideas were elitist, and didn’t tailor to any of the lower classes which made up 90% of the population
His ideas remained literary and complex, which the peasants couldn’t work with
Ideas easily suppressed by Austria, Pope and France in 1849. 1831 Genoa revolt, led by Garibaldi failed, 1833 Piedmont Army crushed rebels and 12 executed, 1834 uprising in Savoy failed and 1844 Bandiera Brothers were shot by peasants
Republicanism was too radical and alienated the political rulers who were prepared to ruthlessly suppress it
-Not Accurate:
Whilst many of his actions, such as the revolts in Genoa, Savoy and Piedmont were failures they kept the hope of unity alive and meant that it remained a topical issue
Young Italy had 50,000 members who were devoted to the ideas of Risorgimento and nationalism
Great Propagandist and contributed significantly to struggle for unity abroad. In Switzerland between 1834-49 where he wrote thousands of articles and letters in Antalogia and the journal “Young Italy”. Created and enacted the motto “Thought and action”
Inspired others who had a huge political and social impact on unity, such as Giuseppe Garibaldi
