Factors: Britain Flashcards
How far do you agree that the work of individuals was more significant than mass movements in achieving improved working conditions in the years 1830-1870?
-Work of individuals:
Titus Salt began constructing his ‘Saltaire’ in 1851 where he created an area with good working and living conditions for his workers.
The Tolpuddle Martyrs were arrested and transported after protesting about low wages. In response to this 100,000 people protested near King’s cross and the government had to respond with enormous military and police presence. The protestors then marched towards Whitehall with a petition with over 800,000 signatures
Richard Oastler helped push through the Ten-hour movement
John Wood was a factory owner who also took good care of his employees, he also donated £40,000 to Michael Sadler and his efforts in the Ten-hour movement
Robert Peel’s government played an enormous role in passing the factory reform as well
Robert Owen’s New Lanark showed that treating workers well would result in more productivity rather than harsh treatment of workers
-Mass Movement:
Swing Riots:
Mainly agricultural workers in the south
Lasted for 2 years
Caused £600 riot damage
Caused £100,000 arson damage
252 sentenced to death, 505 transported
Used hunger politics to force reform
Chartism:
In November 1839, 5000 men marched into Newport and attempted to take it. Local troops protecting the area killed 22 of them
Ten Hour Movement
26 Short Time committees
Plug Riots 1842 – 500,000 partaking, 1000 arrested
How far do you agree that rapid industrial growth was primarily the result of laissez-faire policies?
-Laissez-faire policies:
Removed obstructions that slowed profiteering
In 1799 and 1800 the combination acts made it illegal to form unions
1823 Master and Servant Acts made it punishable by imprisonment to not fulfill a contract
Government repealed regulation of wages and working conditions and statute of artificers
1846 the corn laws were repealed
-Growth of the middle class
Between 1816 and 1831 the middle class grew from around 160,000 to 214,000
Richard Arkwright’s water frame for his factories allowed him to retire with a fortune of £500,000
Samuel Crompton’s spinning mule was introduced
Banks provided a source of capital so they could start that business
-Growth of industrial towns and cities
In England in 1836 there were 22,000 turnpiked roads
In 1753 London to Shrewsbury was a 4-day journey, but in 1835 that was cut down to just 12 hours due to improvement of infrastructure
For every 16 miles of turnpike, 1 mile of river navigation had been improved.
Total railway network in 1838 was 500 miles, in 1850 it was over 6000 miles
Manchester grew from 50,000 in 1775 to 84,000 in 1801
Half of the 16.9mil population lived in an urban environment
In 1801 half the population was engaged in industrial pursuits.
100 furnaces built between 1796 and 1806
90% of British Pig Iron being smelted in the 5 coal fields of South Wales, Shropshire, Staffordshire, Yorkshire and Scotland
-Growth of transport
22,000 turnpiked roads in England by 1836
In 1753, London to Shrewsbury was a 4-day journey, by 1835 it was just 12 hours
By 1838 there were 500 miles of railway track, in 1850 there was 6000
The number of annual passengers on the Forth Clyde Canal rose from 44,000 in 1812 to 200,000 in 1836
Bristol to London went from 30 hours to 16 hours in 1784
How far do you agree that political sympathies rather than popular agitation accounted for the passage of factory reform in the years 1830-1870?
-Political sympathies:
Factory Act 1833
Children under nine couldn’t be employed
Children 9-12 could work a maximum of 9 hours a day
Children 13-18 work a maximum of 12 hours a day
1 ½ break for meals each day
Four full-time inspectors for the factories
Mines Act 1842
Banned the underground employment of women and children under 10
Factory Act 1844
More inspectors appointed
New safety rules I.e., fence off dangerous areas while machines are being cleaned
Children could start work aged 8 but not work more than 6 ½ hours a day.
Factory Act 1847
10 hour working day for all women and children
Young people and women restricted to a 10 ½ hour working day which basically extended to men as well as the factories couldn’t function without the full workforce
Restricted working hours for children from 6am-6pm
Factory Act Extension Acts:
Further extensions were made to include more industries, Bleaching and dyeworks (1860), lace work (1861), calendaring (1863), finishing (1864), potteries (1864)
-Popular agitation:
Chartism:
4000 chartist sympathizers led by John Frost marched onto Newport in Wales and tried to take it, soldiers fired on them and killed 22 of the chartists
10 Hour movement:
Wanted a reduction for the hours worked in a day in textile mills to 10 per day
John Fielden was instrumental in bringing about the change which was finally introduced in 1847 along with the Factory Act 1847
Swing Riots:
Began in 1830
Lasted for 2 years
£600 riot damage
£100,000 arson damage
252 sentenced to death
505 transported
Was parliamentary concern for the suffering of working children the main reason for factory reform in the years 1819-1848?
-Concern for the suffering of working children:
57% of children born into working class families died before their fifth birthday.
Families often had to recycle water leading to the spread of cholera
They would often work 6 days a week, 14 hours a day
If workers were caught talking, they were fined 1 shilling or 1/5 of their daily wage.
Diseases like cholera spread at fast rates e.g. in Sunderland killing 32,000 in a year
Typhus claimed about 4000 young lives every year along with diptheria and scarlet fever
Back to back housing was all of poor quality
-Mass Movement:
Swing Riots:
Mainly agricultural workers in the south
Lasted for 2 years
Caused £600 riot damage
Caused £100,000 arson damage
252 sentenced to death, 505 transported
Used hunger politics to force reform
Chartism
March on Newport – 4000 chartists, soldiers fired on them 22 killed
Bull Ring Riots - £20,000
Ten hour movement
-Work of individuals:
Titus Salt began constructing his ‘Saltaire’ in 1851 where he created an area with good working and living conditions for his workers.
The Tolpuddle Martyrs were arrested and transported after protesting about low wages. In response to this 100,000 people protested near King’s cross and the government had to respond with enormous military and police presence. The protestors then marched towards Whitehall with a petition with over 800,000 signatures
Richard Oastler helped push through the Ten-hour movement
John Wood was a factory owner who also took good care of his employees, he also donated £40,000 to Michael Sadler and his efforts in the Ten-hour movement
Michael Sadler’s wrote the Sadler report on the abuse of child workers and published it in 1832 which swayed public opinion and helped the cause of reforming factory conditions for children
-Political Change:
The Tory collapse in 1827 allowed the new Whig government to get in power and they were the party that put through all these reforms
The twenty years between 1832 and 1852 the Tories were only in power for 7 years, meaning the Whigs had a lot of time in power to do factory reform acts which they did. The Factory Act (1833,44,47) were all passed under Whig governments.
The parties also knew that reforming the factories and working conditions would guarantee them votes for the next election
After the 1832 reform act the electorate rose from 366,000 to approximately 650,000 or 18% of the male population at the time, this meant that some of the workers would’ve been able to vote but more importantly the factory owners in order to appease their workers would’ve voted for the party more likely to help their workers. Which is important because the parties know this guarantees them votes.
How accurate is it to say that Luddism in the years 1811-1817 was remarkably similar to the swing riots that took place in the years 1830-1831?
-Causes:
Luddism:
Long term: Increased use of unskilled labour, Napoleons blockade (from 1808), introduction of frame rents.
Short term: Closure of American Market in 1811: £11 million exports in 1810 dropped to £2 million by 1811.
Swing Riots:
‘Hunger politics’ – poor harvests in the south.
Hated threshing machines being introduced reducing winter employment. They could do the work of 15 men.
-Methods:
Luddism:
6 years
1811 – threatening letters sent to employers in Nottingham.
3 weeks – 200 stocking frames destroyed.
Feb 1812 – 1000 frames destroyed in Nottingham between £6000 and £10000. Overstepped and killed mill owner
Swing Riots:
2 years
£600 riot damage, £100,000 arson damage.
Sent threatening letters to landowners – they would break machine or set fire to hay ricks if they refused
-Response:
Luddism:
Feb 1812 – Spencer Perceval proposed machine breaking to be made a capital offence. 1812 – 18 men in Lancashire killed, 13 transported.
1812 – Frame breaking act – passed immediately.
12000 troops sent to Luddite active areas.
Swing Riots:
252 sentenced to death, 505 transported.
-Success:
Luddism:
Provoked a large response
Army of spies, informers, and troops to contain them
Defeated.
Swing Riots:
Represents one of the last radical movements.
Harsh legal response
Failure
To what extent were reforms passed by parliament in the year 1833-1848 driven by a desire to improve the lives of the working class?
-Desire to improve the lives of the working class:
Public Health Act 1848
Improved health and sanitation of areas
Creation of the Central Board of Health
For a local board to be set up there needed to be a 23/1000 death rate in that area or 10% of the ratepayers there wanted one setup
-Mass Movements:
Chartism
Bull Ring Riots - £20,000 damage
Mass meetings in Kennington Common where they presented the government with petitions to try and get all men the vote and reform the political system
March on Newport, 4000 chartists attended, and soldiers fired on them killing 22
-10 hour movement:
The backbone of the drive for reform, a campaign for the reduction of hours worked in textile mills to 10 hours per day
Led by Richard Oastler, a Tory landowner from Huddersfield driven by improving humanitarian conditions and treating child workers well
John Fielden was instrumental in bringing about the Factory Act 1847 which included the 10-hour working day
Never extended to men only women & children
-Work of individuals:
Edwin Chadwick’s report ‘The Sanitary Condition of the Laboring Population of Great Britain’ sold 100,000 copies
Southward Smith created the Health of Towns Association which helped gain momentum for passing legislation
Benjamin Disraeli, who was a member of the Health of Towns Association, later became the Prime Minister
Lord Morpeth helped to set up the Public Health Act 1848 and this maintenance of sewers for streets and provision of water
John Fielden & Richard Oastler and their efforts in pushing through a 10-hour working day in textile mills
Feargus O’Connor organized one of the largest Chartist meetings in Kennington Common
How accurate is it to say that the growth of banking was the most important consequence of industrialisation in the years 1785-1870?
-Growth of banking:
The new inventions were expensive and therefore had to be purchased through accessible banking
In 1797, county banks were granted permission to issue notes, which made paying wages a lot easier
Smaller banks were absorbed into larger joint-stock enterprises
In 1866 there were 154 joint stock banks and 850 branches nationwide
In 1833, an act of parliament allowed joint stock banks in London to issue cheques, this would increase the speed of commercial transactions
-Growth of transport:
22,000 turnpiked roads in England by 1836
In 1753, London to Shrewsbury was a 4-day journey, by 1835 it was just 12 hours
By 1838 there were 500 miles of railway track, in 1850 there was 6000
The number of annual passengers on the Forth Clyde Canal rose from 44,000 in 1812 to 200,000 in 1836
Bristol to London went from 30 hours to 16 hours in 1784
-Growth of industrial towns and cities:
In England in 1836 there were 22,000 turnpiked roads
In 1753 London to Shrewsbury was a 4-day journey, but in 1835 that was cut down to just 12 hours due to improvement of infrastructure
For every 16 miles of turnpike, 1 mile of river navigation had been improved.
Total railway network in 1838 was 500 miles, in 1850 it was over 6000 miles
Manchester grew from 50,000 in 1775 to 84,000 in 1801
Half of the 16.9mil population lived in an urban environment
In 1801 half the population was engaged in industrial pursuits.
100 furnaces built between 1796 and 1806
90% of British Pig Iron being smelted in the 5 coal fields of South Wales, Shropshire, Staffordshire, Yorkshire and Scotland
-Growth of the new industrial middle class:
Middle class increased by 75% between 1816 to 1831, from 160,000 to more than 214,000
Banks could provide a source of capital which allowed members of the middle class to establish themselves in industrialization.
Increase in demand for accessing banking for more men to begin establishing themselves in industrialization
Richard Arkwright’s water frame invention and his factories allowed him and many other factory owners to earn lots of money
Richard Arkwright retired with a fortune of £500,000 and a knighthood
Samuel Crompton’s spinning mule invention was also introduced
Originally, the middle class would only invest in industries like their own, but with joint stock banking rising, the confidence in branching out from investors increased.
How accurate is it to say that industrial working conditions were transformed in the years 1833-1864?
-Women & Children:
10-hour movement limited the working hours of women and children in textile to 10 hours
The factory acts consistently decrease the working hours for women and children
Mines act also banned women and children under 10 from underground employment
-Men:
Not much improvement for men other than safety regulations and inspectors in the 1833 and 1844 Factory acts
Factory Act 1847 basically gave men 10 hour working day as factories couldn’t function without the women and children
-Factories:
Factory Act 1833:
Children under nine couldn’t be employed
Children 9-12 could work a maximum of 9 hours a day
Children 13-18 work a maximum of 12 hours a day
1 ½ break for meals each day
Four full-time inspectors for the factories
Factory Act 1844:
More inspectors appointed
New safety rules I.e., fence off dangerous areas while machines are being cleaned
Children could start work aged 8 but not work more than 6 ½ hours a day.
Factory Act 1847:
10 hour working day for all women and children
Young people and women restricted to a 10 ½ hour working day which basically extended to men as well as the factories couldn’t function without the full workforce
Restricted working hours for children from 6am-6pm
Factory Act Extension Acts:
Further extensions were made to include more industries, Bleaching and dyeworks (1860), lace work (1861), calendaring (1863), finishing (1864), potteries (1864)
-Mines:
Working hours were originally 12 hours a day over 6 hours a week
Mines went you around 300 meters deep by 1850
1842 Mines Act banned the underground employment of Women and children under 10
How accurate is it to say that squalid living conditions were the main consequence of the growth of industrial towns in the years 1785-1848?
-Squalid living conditions:
3/20 children died in their first year of life
57% of children died by their 5th year of life
1831 cholera outbreak in Sunderland killed 31,000 in first year
Houses only built 3 bricks deep and communal areas also used as toilets
Chadwick’s 1842 report deemed almost 400 of 687 streets to be of poor cleanliness
4 outbreaks of typhoid between 1830-1836
4000 died of typhus each year
-Growth of banking:
The new inventions were expensive and therefore had to be purchased through accessible banking
In 1797, county banks were granted permission to issue notes, which made paying wages a lot easier
Smaller banks were absorbed into larger joint-stock enterprises
In 1866 there were 154 joint stock banks and 850 branches nationwide
In 1833, an act of parliament allowed joint stock banks in London to issue cheques, this would increase the speed of commercial transactions
-Growth of the new industrial middle class:
Middle class increased by 75% between 1816 to 1831, from 160,000 to more than 214,000
Banks could provide a source of capital which allowed members of the middle class to establish themselves in industrialization.
Increase in demand for accessing banking for more men to begin establishing themselves in industrialization
Richard Arkwright’s water frame invention and his factories allowed him and many other factory owners to earn lots of money
Richard Arkwright retired with a fortune of £500,000 and a knighthood
Samuel Crompton’s spinning mule invention was also introduced
Originally, the middle class would only invest in industries like their own, but with joint stock banking rising, the confidence in branching out from investors increased.
-Growth of transport:
22,000 turnpiked roads in England by 1836
In 1753, London to Shrewsbury was a 4-day journey, by 1835 it was just 12 hours
By 1838 there were 500 miles of railway track, in 1850 there was 6000
The number of annual passengers on the Forth Clyde Canal rose from 44,000 in 1812 to 200,000 in 1836
Bristol to London went from 30 hours to 16 hours in 1784
To what extent does the emergence of an industrial middle class explain the increasing demand for parliamentary reform in the years 1785-1832?
-Emergence of an industrial middle class:
Middle class grew 75% 1816-1831
Middle class grew from 160,000 to over 214,000
Cotton industry by 1832 employed 833,000 and made £300 million
No salaries for MPs meant that the middle class couldn’t get involved with politics
New middle class wanted a say in government affairs
-Failures of the old political system:
Old political system was designed to keep the uneducated away from the power and keep it all for the rich
Rotten Boroughs e.g. Old Sarum
Cornwall 42 MPs, population of 300,000
Lancashire 14 MPs population of 1.3 million
Only 400,000 of 13.89 million could vote, 5% of male population
To qualify for vote you had to own or rent land worth 40 shillings
-Mass Movements and protest:
Spa fields Riots, 20,000 people attending
Cato Street Conspiracy, plan to kill Lord Liverpool
London Corresponding Society, 5000 members (Closer to 1000)
Copenhagen fields demostration, 100,000 people, LCS
Sheffield Society for Constitutional Information
Peterloo Massacre, Henry Hunt, 60,000 people, 11 killed, 400-600 wounded by yeomanry
To what extent does the strength of government resolve explain the decline in demand for reform in the years 1785-1832?
-Strength of government resolve:
Habeas Corpus being suspended in 1794
December 1795, ‘Two Acts’ expanded the law of treason
1819, Six Acts to reduce disturbances
Loyalist Groups
Frame Breaking Act increased penalty for Luddites
Pentrich rebellion 1817, a small group of radicals in the Northern Districts planned for a series of spontaneous uprisings.
The minor uprising near Huddersfield in June 1817 involving 200 men was quickly stopped by a small detachment of troops
The second was in Pentrich in Derbyshire where Jeremiah Brandreth led 200 stocking-makers, ironworkers, quarrymen and labourers to seize Nottingham Castle. Before reaching the castle, the leaders were captured and three of them were executed, with a further 30 being transported.
Cato Street Conspiracy, the planners were all arrested and some executed
-Hunger Politics/Economy Improving:
Protest was often motivated, or catalysed, by poor economic situations, however these improved between 1820 and 1830.
Between 1821 and 1829 Britains’s GNP rose by 16.8% and manufacturing grew by 25%
By 1811 British Manufactures produced £130 million of goods of which £40 million was exported
Glasgow’s population grew by 46% during the 1810s and Manchester’s grew by 44% in the 1820s. Symptom of Economic growth
Though the radicals continued within this period, their voice became muted as the population more content
The improving living standard encouraged the government to become more progressive in its attitudes. They combined to Tory government to relax their authoritarian stance on order and pursue commerce instead
In 1815 the French Wars End
-The Dominance of the Tory Party:
Since 1812, there had been no change in leadership in the Tory party and Lord Liverpool (prime minister from 1812-27) was so confident of his position and authority that there was no need to change things
The Whigs were a poor opposition party during this period therefore not giving the necessary support to those people in the country who wanted change.
Lord Liverpool had been successful at avoiding the ‘Catholic question’ (which brought down Wellington eventually) because he didn’t want to give them the vote. He was convinced that this would cause problems and so didn’t want to talk about the issue lest it stir up troubles in the country (and therefore increase the calls for reform)
When Lord Liverpool suffered a stroke in 1827 and resigned, there was apparent chaos in the Tory party who had 3 leaders in 11 months with the Duke of Wellington taking over in August 1828. Whilst this may have contributed to an increase in calls for change, the reality was the Tories were trying desperately to sort themselves out (and the thorny issue of Catholic emancipation which Wellington decided to support in 1829) and so the last thing on their minds was bringing about electoral reform.
How far do you agree that the 1867 reform act was more significant than reform in 1832?
-1832 Reform Act:
Electorate rose to 655,000 from 360,000 (18% of the male population)
Increased involvement in politics by the middle classes
Increased numbers of voters led to the development of permanent party organisations who helped registers voters
Significant increase in the number of contested seats, 30% before 1832 to 50% after
56 Boroughs disenfranchised with a further 30 losing one of their MPs
42 new boroughs were created and 62 seats were given to English counties
Wales received 5 new seats, Scotland had 8 and Ireland had 5
In the counties the vote was given to adult males who owned land worth £10 a year or rented land worth £50 a year
Voters had to be registered and polling was limited to 2 days
1867 Reform Act:
Existing effect of 1832 Reform Act stayed
In the boroughs all male householders provided they had lived there for at least a year and lodgers who occupied property worth at least £10 for at least one year could vote
In the counties, in addition to the existing franchise, all owners or leaseholders of land worth £5 a year could vote
Almost 1 million new voters were added to the franchise, virtually doubling what it was before in Britain
2.46 million voters now in Britain, 1/3 of all men
45 seats taken from boroughs with fewer than 10,000 people; 7 were completely disenfranchised
25 of these seats went to the counties; 20 went to new boroughs; 6 existing boroughs gained an extra seat and one seat was reserved for the university of London
Was pressure from outside parliament the main reason for the reform of parliament in the years 1852-1870?
-Pressure from outside parliament:
Progressive middle class were pushing for new reforms
Richard Cobden made a series of speeches promoting the issue of reform in 1858
Nation Reform Union, sought to extend the franchise to include all male rate payers, seat distribution and a secret ballot
Reform League, wanted universal manhood suffrage and a secret ballot
More widespread support and many ex chartists and trade unionists
Hyde Park Riots, 200,000 people attended the riots
Trafalgar square riots
-Failures of the first liberal bill (1866):
In March 1866, Gladstone introduced a reform bill
The qualification for borough franchise was to be reduced to £7 a year which would’ve given 200,000 skilled workers the vote and in the counties bring the £50 a year rental to £14, expected to bring in a further 170,000 voters
Rejected by MPs as they were concerned about the growth in uneducated voters
In the end, the bill was defeated and the government resigned
Led to riots in Hyde Park again
-Legacy of the 1832 reform act:
The Whigs made no attempt to deny that the £10 limit on the 1832 Reform Act was designed to exclude the lower classes from the vote
Chartists movement was born from the aftermath of the Great Reform Act, despite its failure it kept alive radical ideas about reform
Aristocracy and landowning classes continued to have a strong and influential role in affairs
Beginning of reform, although not its intention, it paved the way for future reform
Leeds, with a population of 125,000 only 5,000 could vote because of the £10 rule
Income of £600 needed to become an MP which limited many
How accurate is it to say that the continued lack of parliamentary reform in the years 1785-1820 is best explained by government fear of revolution?
-Fear of revolution:
The 1792 French Revolution had just finished
The Napoleonic wars brought about radical ideas
During the wars, the government had successfully linked domestic radicalism with the anarchy of the French revolution
The end of the war removed this obstacle to radical activity and even stimulated its revival
Habeas Corpus being suspended in 1794
December 1795, ‘Two Acts’ expanded the law of treason
1819, Six Acts to reduce disturbances
Loyalist Groups
-Parliament’s unwillingness to modernise:
Parliament was extremely corrupt
Rotten boroughs e.g. Old Sarum, a population of 1 person had 1 MP compared to Birmingham that had 0 MPs with a much larger population
This allowed the MPs to stay in power and keep richer and prevent the lower classes from involving themselves in politics
Less than 5% of the population could vote, all depended on wealth and property
Cornwall 300,000 population but 42 MPs
Lancashire 1.3M population but 14 MPs
Birmingham, Yorkshire, Leeds and Manchester had 0 MPs combined
-Economic problems:
National debt increased from £238 million to £902 million
Following the end of the war, 400,000 soldiers had come home and found it difficult to find jobs
The 1815 corn laws banished the import of foreign corn until the price reached 10 shillings a bushel
Income tax was abolished in 1816, as a result the government increased indirect tax on items such as beer, tea and sugar which affected the majority of people, particularly the poorer people
Poor relief increased from 2 million to 8 million from the 1770s to early 1800s
-Emergence of radical societies and press:
Hampden clubs and societies spread around the country, 150 branches by 1824 and organized mass meetings
Major John Cartwright setup the first club in London in 1812, the aim was to peacefully educate and campaign for universal suffrage through mass petitions
In 1813, Cartwright toured 900 miles in 29 days visiting 34 towns, gaining 130,000 signatures in 430 petitions
From November 1816, William Cobbett began republishing the leading article from his ‘Weekly Political Register’ as a separate 2d pamphlet which created a large working class audience
People clubbed together to buy these and they circulated through streets, coffee houses and pubs
How accurate is it to say that in the years 1838-48 the chartists failed to achieve the charter because its demands were too ambitious?
-Ambitious demands:
Universal suffrage for all men over 21, secret ballot, fairer constituencies, annual parliament, MP salary.
Purpose of 1832 was to give limited reform (650,000 franchised) this was too fast. Middle class support went to other more popular causes such as the ACL.
Middle class content with gains of 1832.
However, discontent was high especially following 1833 factory act, that failed to give 10 hour day.
Failings of 1832: Poor excluded, £10 land owned or £50 rented.
-Failures in their actions (Violence and petitions):
Newport rising 1839: 1000s marched to hotel, fired upon 20 killed.
Lovett and O’Connor were imprisoned.
Decisive government victory.
Plug riots: Riot after rejection of the second petition, 500,000 went on strike and removed plugs from boilers. 15 counties affected.
Characterised as a chartist protest and Peel arrested 1000s of Chartists.
-Lack of financial backing:
The National Charter Association was founded in July 1840 and it became the backbone of the Chartists for the next 12 years
By April 1842 it had 401 branches and 50,000 member
The NCA failed due to a lack of money, most supports couldn’t afford the subscription fee
The execute committee were poorly paid and didn’t have the resources to do their jobs efficiently
-Divisions over methods of protest:
Moral force chartists emphasized non-violent protest, education and even cooperation
Physical force chartists supported armed struggles, the Newport rising and plug rising were the high points of this attitude
Feargus O’Connor was a third attitude, he threatened violence but remained within the law, he delivered impressive speeches and wrote for the Northern Star newspaper
