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Biostatistics & Epidemiology > (F) Outbreak Investigation > Flashcards

(F) Outbreak Investigation Flashcards

1
Q

Levels Of Disease

The amount of a disease that is usually present in a community; the observed but not necessarily the desired level; regarded as the expected level of disease

A

Baseline

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2
Q

Levels Of Disease

→ First or initial Data
→ observe but not necessarily the desired level
→ Starting Point

A

Baseline

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3
Q

Levels Of Disease - T or F

in baseline, it is the final data, and puts conclusion to the investigation

A

F (First or Initial Data)

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4
Q

Levels Of Disease

A disease that occurs infrequently and irregularly

A

Sporadic

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5
Q

Levels Of Disease

The constant presence and/or usual prevalence of a disease or infectious agent in a population within a geographic area

A

Endemic

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6
Q

Level of Disease - T or F

In endemic, it is the constant presence of specific disease to a specific place

A

T

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7
Q

Levels Of Disease

The persistently high levels of disease occurrence

A

Hyperendemic

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8
Q

Levels Of Disease

An increase, often sudden, in the number of cases of a disease above what is normally expected in that population in that area

A

Epidemic

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9
Q

Levels Of Disease

Similar to an epidemic but is often used for a more limited geographic area

A

Outbreak

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10
Q

Levels Of Disease

An aggregation of cases grouped in place and time that are suspected to be greater than the number expected, even though the expected number maybe unknown

A

Cluster

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11
Q

Levels Of Disease

An epidemic that has spread over several countries or continents, usually affecting a large number of people

A

Pandemic

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12
Q

Level of Disease

what is the origin of a Pandemic??

A

it is an epidemic from one country that spread over several countries

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13
Q

T or F

If there is an outbreak to a community, there is a need to conduct of outbreak investigation?

A

True

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14
Q

Aims of Outbreak Investigation - T or F

Asses the situation

A

T

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15
Q

Aims of Outbreak Investigation - T or F

identifying new syndrome and case

A

T

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16
Q

Aims of Outbreak Investigation - T or F

For asset concers – need to inform the government official

A

F (Liability)

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17
Q

Aims of Outbreak Investigation - T or F

Train drake, for experience

A

F (Epidemiologist)

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18
Q

Aims of Outbreak Investigation - T or F

Asses the effectiveness of previous prevention strategies

A

F (current)

If the existing program is effective or not

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19
Q

Aims of Outbreak Investigation - T or F

Find the loopholes this will help fixing the program

A

True

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20
Q

Aims of Outbreak Investigation - T or F

To determine the cause of the outbreak (the disease detected)

A

True

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21
Q

Aims of Outbreak Investigation - T or F

To continue further spread of the outbreak (the fire fighter)

A

F (prevent)

dumb ass or what????

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22
Q

Aims of Outbreak Investigation - T or F

To educate responsible individuals in the prevention of similar outbreak in the future (the public health educator)

A

True

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23
Q

Enumerate the Reasons for Investigating Outbreaks

lol make kabisado dont familliarize

A
  1. Prevention and Control
  2. Gain additional knowledge/ research
  3. Training
  4. Public, political, or legal concerns
  5. Program considerations

bruh make kabisado of it okay? okay

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24
Q

Principle under Prevention and Control

Primary ____________ Reason for investigation

A

Public Health

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25
Q

Principle under Prevention and Control

Principal _____________

A

Considerations

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26
Q

Principle under Prevention and Control

How much is known about the ________, the ________, and the ________of the agent?

A
  • Causitive Agent
  • Source
  • Mode of Transmission
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27
Q

Principle under Prevention and Control

The decisions regarding whether and how extensively to investigate an outbreak are influenced by the ____________ of the problem itself

A

characteristics

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28
Q

Prevention and Control

What is the main objective of Primary Public Health Reason for investigation

A

3P’s – Promote life, prolong heatlh, and prevent spread of disease

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29
Q

Prevention and Control

What are the questions asked in principal considerations?

A
  • What is the stage of the epidemic?
  • Are cases occurring in increasing numbers?
  • Is the outbreak just about over?
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30
Q

Prevention and Control - T or F

cases are CONTINUING TO OCCUR:

Goal is most probably to prevent occurrence of additional cases

A

True

So no more cases will be, and person to be infected

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31
Q

Prevention and Control - T or F

cases are CONTINUING TO OCCUR:

The objective of the investigation would be to assess the extent of the outbreak, the size, and characteristics of the population that is not concerned

A

F (at risk)

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32
Q

Prevention and Control - T or F

outbreak appears to be ALMOST OVER:

Goal may be to prevent similar outbreaks in the future

A

True

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33
Q

Prevention and Control - T or F

outbreak appears to be ALMOST OVER:

The objective of the investigation is to identify factors which contributed to the dancebreak in order to design and implement measures that would prevent similar outbreaks in the future

A

F (Outbreak)

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34
Q

Prevention and Control - T or F

outbreak appears to be ALMOST OVER:

This is to strengthen Program for different outbreaks

A

F (Similar)

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35
Q

Control and Prevention

Agent is Known and Mode of transmission and source is unknown , what is the priority?

A

CONTROL

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36
Q

Control and Prevention

Agent is known, and mode of transmission is unknown

A

Primary goal is investigation

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37
Q

Control and Prevention

Agent unknown

A

Investigation and control

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38
Q

Gain additional knowledge/ research

Each outbreak is an opportunity to study the ____________________ in question

A

natural history of the disease

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39
Q

Gain additional knowledge/ research

Each outbreak is an opportunity to study the natural history of the disease in question, Especially if this is a?

A
  • Rare
  • New
  • Emerging disease
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40
Q

Gain additional knowledge/ research

what should be the channel for outbreak investigation?

A

Proper scientific method

take not thet Epidemiologic study uses different design

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41
Q

Gain additional knowledge/ research

For a newly recognized disease, field investigation provides an opportunity to define the natural history, enumerate what could possibly defined.

A
  • agent
  • mode of transmission
  • incubation period
  • clinical spectrum of the disease
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42
Q

Gain additional knowledge/ research - T or F

Are able to characterize the populations at lesser risk

A

F (its always the poopulation at GREATER RISK)

identify specific risk factors!!!

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43
Q

Identify whose population are at risk

Leptospirosis Season

A. People at lowlying area
B. those who are suspended in air
C. birds that doesnt stop flying
D. Rich kid in katips

A

A

is it questionable ??? hell nah

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44
Q

Gain additional knowledge/ research

Can we asses the impact of control measures??

A

Yes we can it is theoretically always available but it cannot be always feasible in practice (Resources wise)

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45
Q

Training - T or F

Investigating an outbreak requires a combination of diplomacy, logical thinking, problem-solving ability, quantitative skills, epidemiologic know-how and judgment.

A

True

diplomacy?? (high pitched voice)

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46
Q

Training

what are the skills improved in investigatin an outbreak?

A
  • Diplomacy
  • Logical Thinking
  • Problem-Solving Ability
  • Quantitative Skills
  • Epidemiologic know-how
  • Judgement
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47
Q

Training

Skills are improve with?

A

Practice and Experience

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48
Q

Training - T or F

Exposure of the epidemiologist and public workers, they will be more compenetnt and ready for more outbreak

A

True

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49
Q

Training

The investigating team can be composed of?

A

a seasoned epidemiologist with trainee/s

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50
Q

Public, political, or legal concerns - T or F

The existing knowledge for program we have are jeopardized by political reasons

A

True – Nag ma-magaling pa mga politiko kesa sa mga specialist or trained individual ex. epidemiologist./.

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51
Q

Public, political, or legal concerns

Increasingly, the public has taken an interest in ________________ and potential environmental exposures, and has called upon the health department to investigate

A

Disease Clusters

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52
Q

Public, political, or legal concerns

involves community in every process so they can be more empowered, and they can solve problems on their own within their community)

A

Active community participation

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53
Q

TOF

in Program considerations you can change or modify the existinge program/s?

A

True - Cause it may be ineffective and change it to be better Esp to the overlook populations

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54
Q

Program considerations

An outbreak of a disease (which is targeted by a public health program) may reveal a ________ in that program and provide an opportunity to modify/strengthen the program’s efforts.

A

Weakness

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55
Q

Program considerations

Investigating the causes of an outbreak may identify populations which may have been ____________, failures in the ________________, changes in the ________, or events beyond the scope of the program.

A
  • Overlooked
  • Investigation strategy
  • Agent
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56
Q

SO WHAT IS THE BOTTOM LINE OF Reasons for Investigating Outbreaks

A

Prevent the spread of disease

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57
Q

Steps in and Outbreak Investigation, enumerate : P

familliarize if u want

A
  1. Verify the diagnosis and confirm the outbreak
  2. Define a case and conduct case finding
  3. Tabulate and orient data: time, place, person
  4. Do immediate control measures
  5. Formulate and test hypothesis
  6. Plan and execute additional studies
  7. Implement and evaluate control measures
  8. Communicate findings
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58
Q

Steps in and Outbreak Investigation

________ the diagnosis and confirm the outbreak

A

Verify

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59
Q

Steps in and Outbreak Investigation

________ a case and conduct case finding

A

Define

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60
Q

Steps in and Outbreak Investigation

_____________ and _________ data: time, place, person

A

Tabulate and Orient

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61
Q

Steps in and Outbreak Investigation

Do ________ control measures

A

Immediate

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62
Q

Steps in and Outbreak Investigation

Formulate and test ________________

A

Hypothesis

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63
Q

Steps in and Outbreak Investigation

Plan and execute additional _____

A

Studies

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64
Q

Steps in and Outbreak Investigation

Implement and evaluate ______________

A

Control Measures

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65
Q

Steps in and Outbreak Investigation

Communicate _________

A

Findings

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66
Q

Steps in and Outbreak Investigation - T or F

The steps can occur simultaneously or repeated

A

True

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67
Q

What are

What are the preparation for field work?

A
  • Investigation
  • Administration
  • Consultation
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68
Q

Preparation for Field Work

Appropriate scientific knowledge,
Supplies, and equipment
Consult regarding epidemic
Laboratory specimen collection
Storage
Transport

A

INVESTIGATION

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69
Q

Preparation for Field Work

Travel arrangements and travel orders
Logistics, administration and contracts

A

ADMINISTRATION

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70
Q

Preparation for Field Work

Specific roles and responsibilities
Understand your own role so that you can contribute more dearly.

A

CONSULTATION

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71
Q

Knowledge Necessary to Prepare for Outbreak Investigation

Various types of ________ agents and the ___________

A
  • Etiologic
  • Resultant Disease
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72
Q

Knowledge Necessary to Prepare for Outbreak Investigation

Epidemiologic characteristics of outbreaks associated with ________ etiologic agents or resultant diseases;

A

Different

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73
Q

Knowledge Necessary to Prepare for Outbreak Investigation

____________________ of resultant diseases;

A

Clinical Symptoms

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74
Q

Knowledge Necessary to Prepare for Outbreak Investigation

________ and ________ sanitation practices

A
  • Environmental
  • Food Sanitation
75
Q

Knowledge Necessary to Prepare for Outbreak Investigation

Sources of exposure which are vulnerable to ________ with an infectious or chemical agent

A

Contamination

76
Q

Knowledge Necessary to Prepare for Outbreak Investigation

________________ available to determine causative agents

A

Laboratory Tests

77
Q

Knowledge Necessary to Prepare for Outbreak Investigation - T or F

a joint effort of different faculty, it is a pool of knowledge

A

F (Different Professional)

78
Q

Verify the diagnosis and confirm the outbreak

What is needed to ensure the existent and properly identification of disease?

clue LAB

A
  • Confirm laboratory testing
  • Rule out misdiagnoses or laboratory error
  • Review clinical findings, check lab results and medical findings
79
Q

1. Verify the diagnosis and confirm the outbreak

T or F

Knowledge/Awareness of the existence of an epidemic through:

Regular analysis of surveillance data- detect unusual patterns of disease occurrence

80
Q

1. Verify the diagnosis and confirm the outbreak

Knowledge/Awareness of the existence of an epidemic through:

why theres a need to call the citizen who knows a several cases?

A

To gather information then confirm the cases when notified

81
Q

1. Verify the diagnosis and confirm the outbreak

Initial investigation may turn out to be?

____ outbreak with a common cause; OR ________ outbreak

A
  • True
  • False
82
Q

1. Verify the diagnosis and confirm the outbreak

Initial investigation may turn out to be?

________and unrelated cases of the same disease OR Unrelated cases of similar but ____ disease

A
  • Sporiadic
  • Unrelated
83
Q

1. Verify the diagnosis and confirm the outbreak

Comparison of the number of the observed number of cases with the expected number which can be?

A

The number of cases:
* Previous few weeks or months
* Comparable period during the previous few years

84
Q

1. Verify the diagnosis and confirm the outbreak

Source of data to establish ‘expected number cases’:

____ ________ surveillance data if disease is a notifiable disease

A

Health Department

85
Q

1. Verify the diagnosis and confirm the outbreak

Source of data to establish ‘expected number cases’: T or F

Hospitals discharge records, mortality statistics, cancer or registries if disease is non-notifiable

86
Q

1. Verify the diagnosis and confirm the outbreak

Source of data to establish ‘expected number cases’:

Apply rates from ____________ or conduct an informal survey among local physicians

A

neighboring areas

87
Q

1. Verify the diagnosis and confirm the outbreak

Source of data to establish ‘expected number cases’:

________ ____________ of the community to establish background level of the disease

A

Conduct Survey

88
Q

1. Verify the diagnosis and confirm the outbreak

Factors which could explain excess cases:

existence of ___ outbreak

89
Q

Factors which could explain excess cases:

Changes in ________ reporting procedures

90
Q

Factors which could explain excess cases:

Changes in ________ definition

91
Q

Factors which could explain excess cases:

________ ________ because of local or national awareness

A

Increased interest

92
Q

Factors which could explain excess cases:

Improvements in ________ procedures

A

Diagnostic

93
Q

Factors which could explain excess cases:

________ ________ in size of population in particular areas

A

Sudden Increases

94
Q

1. Verify the diagnosis and confirm the outbreak

Factors influencing decision regarding investigation of the outbreak

A
  • Severity of the illness
  • The potential for spread
  • Political consideration
  • Public relations
  • Availability of resources, etc.
95
Q

Define a case and conduct case-finding

T or F - who are the individuals to be included in case

96
Q

Define a case and conduct case-finding

This is to discern the proper cases, and if the individuals should be really in the case

A

Standard set of Criteria

97
Q

Define a case and conduct case-finding

Develop a specific case definition using ________

98
Q

Define a case and conduct case-finding

Conduct surveillance using _____ _______

A

Case Definition

existing surveillance
active surveillance

99
Q

Define a case and conduct case-finding

TOF - Interview non-case-patients

100
Q

Define a case and conduct case-finding

  • Allows a simple, uniform way to identify cases
  • “standardizes” the investigation
  • Is unique to the outbreak but is based on objective criteria
A

Case Definition

101
Q

Define a case and conduct case-finding

what is always included in defining case?

A

Person, place, and Time

102
Q

Define a case and conduct case-finding

Relevant information about personal characteristics

103
Q

Define a case and conduct case-finding

Information about where the exposure is thought to have occurred

104
Q

Define a case and conduct case-finding

Dates during which exposure was thought to have occurred

105
Q

if u see this

A

study the example of Case definition

106
Q

→ Categories of Cases

  • Symptoms characteristic of the agent
  • Lab test (+ result)
  • Epidemiologic link
107
Q

→ Categories of Cases

  • Symptoms confirmed
  • No lab test (+ result) or epidemiologic link
108
Q

→ Categories of Cases

  • Symptoms are reported but not Confirmed
  • No lab or epidemiologic link
109
Q

Create a line listing of identified cases

A

3.Tabulate and Orient data

110
Q

3.Tabulate and Orient data

Who was infected?
- What do the cases have in common?

A

Person (Anon only initials)

111
Q

3.Tabulate and Orient data

Where were they infected?
- May be useful to draw a map

112
Q

3.Tabulate and Orient data

When were they infected?
- Create an epidemic curve

113
Q

if u see this card

A

shake yo ass, jk study examples under tabulate and orient data

114
Q

3.Tabulate and Orient data

Is a graphical depiction of the number of cases of illness by the date of illness onset

A

EPIDEMIC CURVE

115
Q

what can be provided by and Epidemic Curve?

A
  • Pattern of spread
  • magnitude
  • outliers
  • time trend
  • exposure and/or disease incubation period
116
Q

3.Tabulate and Orient data - T or F

The overall shape of the epidemic curve can reveal the type of outbreak

117
Q

what are the types of epidemic curve??

A
  • common source (point, continuous, intermittent)
  • Propagated
  • Mixed
118
Q

3.Tabulate and Orient data

People are exposed continuously or intermittently to a harmful source

A

COMMON SOURCE

119
Q

3.Tabulate and Orient data

Has KNOWN common source

A

COMMON SOURCE

120
Q

3.Tabulate and Orient data

under common source, how long the period of exposure for?

A

BRIEF (underwear??) or Long periods

121
Q

3.Tabulate and Orient data

Intermittent exposure often results in an epi curve with irregular peaks that reflect the timing and the extent of exposure

A

Intermittent – sporadic

122
Q

3.Tabulate and Orient data

Cases were all exposed to the same source during a brief period of calendar time;

A

COMMON SOURCE – Common Point Source

123
Q

ONE SHARP PEAK in the curve

A

Common Point Source

124
Q

Common source

Typically shows a sharp upward slope and a gradual downward slope

A

Common Point Source

125
Q

Common source

Is a common source outbreak in which the period of exposure is brief, and all cases occur within one incubation period

A

Common point source

126
Q

COMMON SOURCE

Continuous exposure will often cause cases to rise gradually (and possibly to plateau, rather than to peak)

A

Continuous Exposure

127
Q

3.Tabulate and Orient data

Spread from person-to-person → lasts longer and control is challenging

A

PROPAGATED EPIDEMIC

128
Q

PROPAGATED EPIDEMIC

what is the common outbreak under propagated epidemic?

A

Outbreak of respiratory cases

129
Q

PROPAGATED EPIDEMIC

Disease agent may replicate in a susceptible host as part of?

A

Transmission cycle

130
Q

PROPAGATED EPIDEMIC

how many waves are there?

A

Multpile

can be also called as “SURGES”

131
Q

The classic epi curve for a propagated outbreak

A
  • Progressively taller peaks
  • One incubation Period apart
132
Q

if u see this card

A

review the Examples of Epidemic According To The Incubation Period

133
Q

3.Tabulate and Orient data

Involve both a single, common exposure to an infectious agent and secondary propagative spread to other individuals (e.g., person to person transmission)

A

MIXED EPIDEMIC

134
Q

3.Tabulate and Orient data

Examples are: Many food borne pathogens (Salmonella, typhoid, Hepatitis A) and airborne organism (M. tuberculosis)

A

MIXED EPIDEMIC

135
Q

→ Factors Affecting Duration of an Epidemic

The number of _________ _________ who are exposed to a source of infectious and become infected;

A

susceptible persons

136
Q

→ Factors Affecting Duration of an Epidemic

The period of time over which susceptible persons are ________ to the source

137
Q

→ Factors Affecting Duration of an Epidemic

The minimum and maximum ____ ________ for the disease.

A

Incubation Periods

138
Q

→ Factors Affecting Duration of an Epidemic - T or F

are attack rate and secondary attack rate belongs to this principle?

139
Q

A special cumulative incidence ( or incidence proportion) that measures the proportion of persons in a population who experience an acute health event during a limited time (e.g., outbreak)

A

ATTACK RATE

140
Q

Number of new cases of a health problem during an outbreak divided by the size of a population at the beginning of the period who are at risk of the event

A

ATTACK RATE

141
Q

The frequency of new cases of a disease among the contacts of known patients;

A

SECONDARY ATTACK RATE

142
Q

The ratio of the number cases among contacts occurring within the acceptable incubation period following exposure to a Primary Case to the total number of exposed contacts.

A

SECONDARY ATTACK RATE

143
Q

From those who contracted the disease from the + individual

A

SECONDARY ATTACK RATE

144
Q

→ EPIDEMIC CURVE

Can provide a sense of the magnitude of an outbreak Additional information can be obtained by stratifying the epidemic curve

A

Outbreak Magnitude

145
Q

→ EPIDEMIC CURVE

Provides information on the time trend of the outbreak based on the following:

a. date of illness onset for the first case

b. date when the outbreak peaked

c. date of illness onset for the last case

A

Outbreak Time Trend

146
Q

→ EPIDEMIC CURVE

Outliers are cases at the very beginning and end that may not appear to be related to the rest of the cases

Unexpected cases – similar symptoms but may or may not be the same disease

A

Outbreak Outliers

147
Q

→ EPIDEMIC CURVE

What are the outbreak outliers

A
  • baseline level illness
  • outbreak source
  • a case exposed earlier than the others
  • an unrelated case
  • a case exposed later than the others
  • a case with a long incubation period
148
Q

→ PERIOD OF EXPOSURE/INCUBATION PERIOD FOR THE OUTBREAK

If the timing of the exposure is known, epi curves can be used to estimate the ?

A

incubation period of the disease

149
Q

→ PERIOD OF EXPOSURE/INCUBATION PERIOD FOR THE OUTBREAK

In common source outbreaks with known incubation periods, epic curves can help determine the?

A

AVERAGE PERIOD OF EXPOSURE

150
Q

→ PERIOD OF EXPOSURE/INCUBATION PERIOD FOR THE OUTBREAK

TOF

Average and minimum incubation periods should be far and should represent the probable period of exposure

151
Q

→ PERIOD OF EXPOSURE/INCUBATION PERIOD FOR THE OUTBREAK

Widen the estimated exposure period by 10-20%

152
Q

If an obvious source of the contamination is identified? what should u do

A. shake yo ass
B. Institute contol measure
C. KEEP ON INVESTIGATING
D. YOLO

A

B. nstitute control measure IMMEDIATELY!

153
Q

what are the statistical part in Steps in and Outbreak Investigation

A
  • Formulate and test hypothesis
  • Plan and execute additional studies
  • Implement and evaluate control measures
  • Communicate findings
154
Q

reducing the risk in the individual level

A

Prevention

155
Q

what is the goal of PREVENTION?

A
  • To Hinder
  • To make impossible by advance
  • Individual and community (More on individual)
156
Q

disease is present; ongoing operation aim to reduce the cases and burden of the disease

157
Q

what is the goal of CONTROL

A
  • To hold in check
  • To restrain
  • Community and Population
158
Q

refers to aggregation of two or more diseases in a population in which there is some level of positive biological interaction that exacerbates the negative health effects of any or all of the diseases

159
Q

what is the level that excarbates negative health effets in the principle of syndemic?

A

some level of ** positive biological interaction**

160
Q

Prevention or Control

With disease and exposed

161
Q

Prevention or Control

Unexposed, and w/o disease

A

Prevention

162
Q

→ Levels of Prevention

  • Before risk factors
  • Preventing the community/individual to be at risk
163
Q

→ Levels of Prevention

  • Pre-pathogenesis
  • Manage the risk factor, prevent the onset of disease
164
Q

→ Levels of Prevention

  • Subclinical or very early clinical
  • Early diagnosis and prompt treatment
165
Q

→ Levels of Prevention

  • Middle to late clinical
  • Reduce complication and disability
166
Q

Prevent development of risk factors – wala pang risk factor

A

Primordial Prevention

167
Q

what are the target and programs under primodial?

A

Target: General Population

Programs:
- National Policies and Programs
- Mass Education
- Individual Education

168
Q

Primodial disease is ideal for?

A

Ideal for chronic disease and non-communicable disease

169
Q

what prevention

  • Reduction of risk factors – it is already present
  • Immunization
  • Removal of harmful agents
  • Aim – Reduce the incidence
170
Q

what are the target of Primary Prevention

A

Susceptible Groups – at risk

171
Q

what prevention

  • Early detection → Earlier recovery Prompt treatment
  • Cure disease at the earliest stage
  • Reduce the prevalence of the disease – make sure that they recover
A

Secondary Prevention

172
Q

target population of secondary prevention?

A

Target: Asymptomatic

173
Q

What Prevention

  • Complete treatment
  • Limit disability
  • Rehabilitation
  • Reduce the number and impact of complication
174
Q

target of tertiary prevention

A

Positive with the disease and know with the disease

175
Q

if u see this card

A

study the example under tertiary prevention

176
Q

Scope of Control Measures

the objective of the applied measure is limited to the protection of health or the presence of the disease in a person

A

Individual

177
Q

Scope of Control Measures

use of measure directed towards the community with the objective of reducing the morbidity and mortality caused by the disease in the community

A

Disease Control

178
Q

Scope of Control Measures

situation in which cases of the disease no longer exist but one or more factors potentially important in the occurrence still persist
Re-emission

A

Elimination of disease

179
Q

Scope of Control Measures

  • Total wipe out of disease and agent of disease → remove the root
  • Still existent and pwedeng bumalik
A

Eradication

180
Q

Scope of Control Measures

Agent no longer exist

A

Extinction

181
Q

Basic Principles of Prevention and Control

Recognize focus of ?

A

infection or agent

182
Q

Basic Principles of Prevention and Control

Determine the ________ in the chain of causation

A

Weakest Link

Biostatistics & Epidemiology (18 decks)

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