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A-Level Geography > EXAM TECHNIQUE: EVIDENCE AND EXPLANATION > Flashcards

EXAM TECHNIQUE: EVIDENCE AND EXPLANATION Flashcards

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1
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

SOCIAL IMPACTS FOUND IN THE 2015 NEPAL EARTHQUAKE

A
  • 8,841 PEOPLE WERE KILLED (9,000)
  • 16,800 WERE INJURED (17,000)
  • 7,000 SCHOOLS DESTROYED
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2
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

ECONOMIC IMPACTS FOUND IN THE 2015 NEPAL EARTHQUAKE

A
  • TOURISM ACCOUNTS FOR 9% OF NEPALS GDP
  • TOURIST ARRIVALS DROPPED 32% FOR THE REST OF 2015
  • MORE THAN HALF A MILLION HOUSES COLLAPSED
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3
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

CONTEXT OF THE 2015 NEPAL EARTHQUAKE

A
  • NEPAL IS A DEVELOPING COUNTRY
  • A 7.8 MAGNITUDE EARTHQUAKE STRUCK
  • MULTI-HAZARDOUS ZONE PRONE TO EARTHQUAKES. AN AVALANCHE WAS TRIGGERED ON MOUNT EVEREST AND KILLED 19 PEOPLE
  • 85% OF THE COUNTRY LIVES IN RURAL AREAS
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4
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

SOCIAL IMPACTS FOUND IN THE 2010 NEW ZEALAND EARTHQUAKE

A
  • 185 PEOPLE WERE KILLED
  • 2,000 WERE INJURED
  • 50% OF THE HOMES WERE DESTROYED (10,000)
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5
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

ECONOMIC IMPACTS FOUND IN THE 2010 NEW ZEALAND EARTHQUAKE

A
  • RESILIENT IN THE AFTERMATH (CANTERBURY ECONOMY)
  • AGRICULTURAL SECTOR WAS LARGELY UNAFFECTED
  • REBUILD COST AROUND $15 BILLION
  • INDICATORS SHOWED IN THE IMMEDIATE AFTERMATH THAT BUSINESS CONFIDENCE DROPPED NATIONWIDE
  • INTERNATIONAL VISITORS WERE DOWN BY 40% IN 2011-2012 PERIOD
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6
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

CONTEXT OF THE 2010 NEW ZEALAND EARTHQUAKE

A
  • A MAGNITUDE 7.1 EARTHQUAKE
  • CONSERVATIVE PLATE BOUNDARY
  • DEVELOPED COUNTRY
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7
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

SHORT TERM RESPONSE IN THE 2010 NEW ZEALAND EARTHQUAKE

A
  • St John’s ambulance service was operational within half an hour of the earthquake
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8
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

LONG TERM RESPONSE IN THE 2010 NEW ZEALAND EARTHQUAKE

A
  • Estimate of the cost of the earthquake was $1.4 billion
  • Canterbury earthquake website set up to provide information and help during future earthquake events
  • Red Cross provided grants to families with children under the age of 5 living in damaged homes, in order to help with their electricity bills
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9
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

SOCIAL IMPACTS FOUND IN THE 2003 BAM EARTHQUAKE

A
  • 26,000 PEOPLE WERE KILLED
  • 20% OF HEALTH PROFESSIONALS WERE KILLED
  • DUE TO SEISMIC BUILDING CODE NOT BEING ENFORCED, 90% OF BUILDINGS AND INFRASTRUCTURE WAS DESTROYED (SOME BEING 2400 YEARS OLD)
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10
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

CONTEXT OF THE 2003 BAM EARTHQUAKE

A
  • UPPER MIDDLE INCOME COUNTRY (WORLD BANK)
  • 6.6 MAGNITUDE EARTHQUAKE
  • OCCURED AT 5:26 AM
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11
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

SHORT TERM RESPONSE IN THE 2003 BAM EARTHQUAKE

A
  • Lack of specialised medical training to deal with large-scale trauma care
  • In the initial search and rescue phase, emergency services struggled with the destruction of their own facilities and infrastructure
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12
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

LONG TERM RESPONSE IN THE 2003 BAM EARTHQUAKE

A
  • Each family was allocated $15,000 to rebuild their homes however many could not afford the materials so remain homeless today as prices rose as the materials became in high demand
  • Organisations are trying to empower locals to better respond to earthquakes to reduce deaths in the first 24 hours
  • Size of roads and homes are being planned to ensure homes are no longer built so weakly in such close proximity to each other
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13
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

SOCIAL IMPACTS FOUND IN THE 2010 HAITI EARTHQUAKE

A
  • 160,000 deaths
  • 1.5 million homeless
  • 250,000 homes destroyed
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14
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

CONTEXT OF THE 2010 HAITI EARTHQUAKE

A
  • Decades of corrupt, ineffective and brutal governance left Haitian people hugely vulnerable because of slum housing, ineffectual water supply and endemic poverty.
  • A post-earthquake cholera epidemic has killed more than 10,000 people and infected more than 800,000.
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15
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

SOCIAL IMPACTS FOUND IN THE 2011 TOHOKU EARTHQUAKE

A
  • 15,894 PEOPLE DIED (16,000)
  • 6,152 INJURED (JUST OVER 6,000)
  • 63% OF THE DEAD WERE AGED 60 AND OVER
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16
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

ECONOMIC IMPACTS FOUND IN THE 2011 TOHOKU EARTHQUAKE

A
  • 130,000 BUILDINGS DESTROYED
  • 145,000 BUILDINGS DAMAGED
  • RECONSTRUCTION COST $217 BILLION
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17
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

CONTEXT OF THE 2011 TOHOKU EARTHQUAKE

A
  • DEVELOPED COUNTRY
  • MAGNITUDE 9 EARTHQUAKE
  • PRODUCED A TSUNAMI THAT WRECKED FUKUSHIMA POWERPLANT
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18
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

SHORT TERM RESPONSE IN THE 2011 TOHOKU EARTHQUAKE

A
  • Search and rescue and keeping survivors alive by providing medical care, food, water and shelter
  • The area around Fukushima was evacuated in the long term due to fears of prolonged radiation exposure
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19
Q

TECTONICS: GENERAL

LONG TERM RESPONSE IN THE 2011 TOHOKU EARTHQUAKE

A
  • The Sendai Framework was established to address disaster risk and how to reduce it internationally
  • Nationally, it focused on future safety measures (higher tsunami wall, environmental awareness for future planning (land use zoning)
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20
Q

TECTONICS: HAZARD MANAGEMENT

STRATEGIES TO MODIFY THE EVENT: EXAMPLE OF HAZARD-RESISTANT BUILDINGS

A

Invest and produce in long-term construction projects which feature safety designs. For instance, aseismic skyscrapers in Japan can withstand the shock of earthquakes and stopped any fatalities in the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake.

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21
Q

TECTONICS: HAZARD MANAGEMENT

STRATEGIES TO MODIFY THE EVENT: EXAMPLE OF ENGINEERING DEFENCES

A

Tsunamis can be modified by creating stronger sea walls or mangrove forests which slow the speed of the wave. This was done at Gle Jong (Indonesia) where 70, 000 trees were planted after 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami.

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22
Q

TECTONICS: HAZARD MANAGEMENT

STRATEGIES TO MODIFY THE EVENT: EXAMPLE OF DIVERSION OF LAVA

A

Diversion of Lava Flows: Lava can be diverted by spraying seawater to cool and solidify the flow. This was done in Italy to divert lava flow from Mount Etna in 1983.

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23
Q

TECTONICS: HAZARD MANAGEMENT

STRATEGIES TO MODIFY THE VULNERABILITY AND RESILIENCE: EXAMPLE OF HI-TECH MONITORING

A

International satellites and aircraft monitor changes in the earth, for instance GNS Science in New Zealand use light detection and ranging to create 3D data pieces of the Earth’s surface. Observing changes in volcanic shapes or low magnitude earthquakes could suggest whether a disaster is likely.

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24
Q

TECTONICS: HAZARD MANAGEMENT

STRATEGIES TO MODIFY THE VULNERABILITY AND RESILIENCE: EXAMPLE OF EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY PREPAREDNESS

A

Examples of this are: preparation days, education in schools and earthquake kits. These are boxes of essential household supplies (water, food, battery powered radio, blankets) kept in a safe place at home to be used in the days following an earthquake.

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25
Q

TECTONICS: HAZARD MANAGEMENT

STRATEGIES TO MODIFY THE LOSS: EXAMPLE OF SHORT AND LONG TERM AID

A

SHORT-TERM - Dominican Republic gave food and water aid in the first 24 hours. (Haiti 2010)

LONG-TERM - In June 2010 there was a World Summit for the Future of Haiti: ‘solidarity beyond the crisis’ of 54 countries and 35 organisations committed $11 billion to reconstruction projects. (Haiti 2010)

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26
Q

TECTONICS: HAZARD MANAGEMENT

STRATEGIES TO MODIFY THE EVENT: EYJAFJALLAJOKULL

A

1/4 billion cubic meters of ash over a month due to the interaction between the ash and the glacier ice. Good strategy to implement reinforced roofing.

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27
Q

TECTONICS: HAZARD MANAGEMENT

STRATEGIES TO MODIFY THE VULNERABILITY AND RESILIENCE: EYJAFJALLAJOKULL

A

Katla is being monitored as each recorded eruption of Eyjafjallajökull has preceded an eruption of Katla, the Icelandic people and airports across Europe have been told to prepare.

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28
Q

TECTONICS: HAZARD MANAGEMENT

STRATEGIES TO MODIFY THE LOSS: EYJAFJALLAJOKULL

A

Compensation for those stranded and accommodation paid for - insurance.

Special state fund, paid for by taxpayer, compensates private homes or businesses for damage to building resulting from natural catastrophes.

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29
Q

COASTS: COASTAL MANAGEMENT

HARD ENGINEERING: ECONOMIC COSTS

A

GROYNES - Cost £150-250 per metre

SEA WALL - £3000-10,000 per metre

RIP RAP - £1300-6000 per metre

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30
Q

COASTS: COASTAL MANAGEMENT

HARD ENGINEERING: ENVIRONMENTAL COSTS

A

GROYNES - Impact on physical processes: Deposition and beach accretion Prevention of longshore drift, sediment starvation and increased erosion downdrift.

SEA WALL - Destruction of the natural cliff face and foreshore environment ​If reflective, it can reduce beach volume

RIP RAP - Reduced wave energy Sediment deposition between rocks

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31
Q

COASTS: COASTAL MANAGEMENT

SOFT ENGINEERING: ECONOMIC COSTS

A

BEACH NOURISHMENT - Beach nourishment typically costs more than £2000 per metre, but ongoing costs are high

CLIFF REGRADING - Cliff regrading and drainage commonly costs £10,000 per metre

DUNE STABILISATION - Fencing costs £400-2000 per 100 m and replanting £1000 per 100 m (1400-3000)

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32
Q

COASTS: COASTAL MANAGEMENT

SOFT ENGINEERING: ENVIRONMENTAL COSTS

A

BEACH NOURISHMENT - Needs constant maintenance and dredging may have consequences on local coastal habitats

CLIFF REGRADING - Cliff may collapse suddenly as the cliff is drier leading to rock falls which pose a hazard and may look unnatural

DUNE STABILISATION - Planting is time-consuming

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33
Q

COASTS: COASTAL MANAGEMENT

EAST ANGLIA: SEDIMENT CELLS

A

East Anglia is sediment cell 3 of the UK coastal system. Running geographically from the Wash to the Thames are eight towns of interest.

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34
Q

COASTS: COASTAL MANAGEMENT

EAST ANGLIA: MANAGEMENT NEGATIVES IN LOWESTOFF & SOUTHWOLDE

A

Groynes, artificial reefs and sea walls are reducing sediment available further along the sediment cell. With little sediment in front the cliffs are exposed to more marine erosion. This is known as Terminal Groyne Syndrome.

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35
Q

COASTS: WEATHERING

FACT: WATER EXPANSION WHEN FROZEN

A

9%

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36
Q

COASTS: WEATHERING

FACT: RATES OF WEATHERING BEING SLOW

A

Even in a hot, wet climate, basalt (igneous rock) weathers at a rate of 1-2 mm every 1000 years.

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37
Q

COASTS: WEATHERING

FACT: CARBONATION IN WINTER

A

Carbonation increases in winter because calcium bicarbonate is more soluble in cold conditions.

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38
Q

COASTS: WEATHERING

FACT: CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING IN HOT CLIMATE

A

A hot, wet climate encourages chemical and biological weathering.

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39
Q

COASTS: MASS MOVEMENT

FACT: ROCKFALL EXAMPLE

A

In April 2013, there was a large blockfall in St Oswald’s Bay on the South Dorset Coast where an 80 m section of chalk cliff was detached overnight.

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40
Q

COASTS: MASS MOVEMENT

FACT: ROTATIONAL SLUMPING EXAMPLE

A

An example of rotational slumping is at Christchurch Bay, in Barton-on-Sea, near Lymington in Hampshire, where unconsolidated sands overlie clay. The bedding plane between sand and clay dips seawards.

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41
Q

COASTS: SEA LEVEL

BANGLADESH 2007: AIR PRESSURE

A

Category 4 cyclone, air pressure 944 mb, 240 kmph and 6 m storm surges.

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42
Q

COASTS: SEA LEVEL

BANGLADESH 2007: PERCENTAGE IN LOW LYING PLAIN

A

60% of Bangladesh low lying, less than 3 m above sea level.

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43
Q

COASTS: SEA LEVEL

BANGLADESH 2007: SHORT-TERM IMPACT

A

15,000 people were killed and 55,000 injured. 1.6 million homes were destroyed.

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44
Q

COASTS: SEA LEVEL

BANGLADESH 2007: IMPACT COUNTERBALANCE

A

However, the impacts of deaths were much lower than in the 1970 Bhola Cyclone where 300,000 were killed. ($90 million economic loss) Improved warnings, embankments and cyclone shelter networks save many lives.

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45
Q

COASTS: SEA LEVEL

IPCC SEA LEVEL PREDICTION BY 2100

A

IPCC predicts a further 18-59 cm rise in sea level by 2100

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46
Q

COASTS: SEA LEVEL

LOCAL FACTORS THAT INCREASE FLOOD RISK

A

Low lying coastlines are only 1-2 m high above (high tide) sea level so they are at risk of flooding.

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47
Q

COASTS: SEA LEVEL

BANGLADESH 2007: BANGLADESH’S HEIGHT IN RELATION TO SEA LEVEL

A

Bangladesh occupies the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, 60% of the country is less than 3 m high above sea level.

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48
Q

COASTS: SEA LEVEL

MALDIVES: MALDIVES’ HEIGHT IN RELATION TO SEA LEVEL

A

The Maldives archipelago in the Indian Ocean has a population of 340,000 spread across 1,200 islands. The highest point in the Maldives is only 2.3 m above sea level.

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49
Q

COASTS: SEA LEVEL

MALDIVES: THE MAIN ISLAND’S PROTECTION

A

Malé, the main island and capital, is protected by a 3 m sea wall.

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50
Q

COASTS: SEA LEVEL

THE NUMBER OF ISLANDS SUBSIDED IN THE GANGES-BRAHMAPUTRA DELTA

A

50 large islands in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta subsided by 1.5 m since 1960.

51
Q

COASTS: SEA LEVEL

VEGETATION: HOW MUCH WAVE HEIGHT CAN MANGROVES REDUCE

A

A 100 m belt of mangrove forest is estimated to reduce wave height by 40%.

52
Q

COASTS: SEA LEVEL

VEGETATION: HOW MANY MANGROVES HAVE BEEN REMOVED

A

An estimated 50% world’s mangrove forests were removed since 1950 - 1/4 of the loss for the creation of shrimp farms, and lots were removed for tourist beaches.

53
Q

COASTS: SEA LEVEL

BANGLADESH: SUBMERGENCE OF BANGLADESH

A

A 40 cm sea-level rise would permanently submerge 11% of Bangladesh, creating 7-10 million environmental refugees.

54
Q

COASTS: SEA LEVEL

MALDIVES: SUBMERGENCE OF MALDIVES

A

The Maldives have an average height of 1.5 m above sea level, but its population of 400,000 is too large to be easily accommodated elsewhere. Its highest point is 2.3 m above sea level, and a 50 cm rise would flood 77% of it.

55
Q

COASTS: SEA LEVEL

HIGH CERTAINTY: SEA LEVEL

A

Sea level will rise by 18-59 cm by 2100. The are area of the world’s major deltas at risk from coastal flooding is likely to increase by 50%.

56
Q

COASTS: SEA LEVEL

LOW CERTAINTY: SEA LEVEL

A

In the North Atlantic, the number of tropical storms becoming hurricanes has risen from 6 in the 1900s to 8 per year from 2000-2016. However, this is only low confidence - no observed increase in maximum intensity in the Pacific and Indian Oceans over the last 20 years of monitoring.

57
Q

COASTS: STORM SURGE

SOCIAL IMPACTS FOUND IN THE 2013 NORTH SEA STORM SURGE

A

15 fatalities across the UK, Holland, Germany and Belgium.

58
Q

COASTS: STORM SURGE

ECONOMIC IMPACTS FOUND IN THE 2013 NORTH SEA STORM SURGE

A

Scotland’s rail network had to be closed and 100,000 homes lost their electricity.

59
Q

COASTS: STORM SURGE

CONTEXT OF THE 2013 NORTH SEA STORM SURGE

A
  • In December 2013, there was a large depression which moves South East from the North Sea.
  • Wind speeds over 140 mph were recorded in parts of Scotland
  • The North Sea becomes shallower in Southern England, which leads to higher wave heights in the South
60
Q

COASTS: MANAGEMENT

HOLDERNESS: MAPLETON STRATEGY

A

Rock Armour at a cost of £2 million. The coast protection works were put in to defend 450 metres of cliff line using 61,500 tonnes of rock armour and groynes.

61
Q

COASTS: MANAGEMENT

HOLDERNESS: MAPLETON CONTEXT

A

There was £2.9 million of damage a year before the management was put in place.
It produced a sandy beach and also protects the town and the B1242.

62
Q

COASTS: MANAGEMENT

HOLDERNESS: MAPLETON COSTS

A

South of Mappleton, the rate of erosion has increased significantly.

63
Q

COASTS: MANAGEMENT

HOLDERNESS: HORNSEA STRATEGY

A

Sea Walls and a Wooden Groynes repaired and built at a cost of £5.2m.

64
Q

COASTS: MANAGEMENT

HOLDERNESS: HORNSEA CONTEXT

A

There is up to 3m of erosion per year because the cliffs are formed from weak boulder clay. The management protects tourist features such as arcades and hotels and creates a sandy beach.

65
Q

COASTS: MANAGEMENT

HOLDERNESS: HORNSEA COSTS

A
  • Groynes prevent material from reaching popular seaside towns to the South.
  • Tourism leads to congestion in the summer, negatively impacting locals.
  • The wall is an unattractive feature
66
Q

COASTS: MANAGEMENT

HOLDERNESS: EASINGTON STRATEGY

A

Rock Armour at a cost of £4.5m

67
Q

COASTS: MANAGEMENT

HOLDERNESS: EASINGTON CONTEXT

A

There is a Gas Terminal at Easington and 2.25% of all UK gas comes through this station.

68
Q

COASTS: MANAGEMENT

HOLDERNESS: EASINGTON COSTS

A
  • The scheme protects the gas terminal, not the village.

- It is preventing material from reaching Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) further South such as sand dunes.

69
Q

COASTS: MANAGEMENT

HOLDERNESS COAST CONTEXT

A
  • The coastline is against the North Sea.
  • It is Europe’s fastest eroding coastline because it is made from Boulder clay. The boulder clay was leftover from the last ice age so it is very weak, soft and crumbling.
  • The coastline has retreated
70
Q

COASTS: MANAGEMENT

HAPPISBURGH: COSTS OF EROSION

A
  • £160,000 COULD BE AVAILABLE TO THE MANOR CARAVAN PARK TO ASSIST IN RELOCATING TO A NEW SITE
  • RESIDENTS COULD GET UP TO £2000 EACH IN RELOCATION EXPENSES
  • SOCIAL COSTS AS VILLAGE BECOMES MORE DEGRADED
71
Q

COASTS: MANAGEMENT

HAPPISBURGH: COSTS OF HOLDING THE LINE

A
  • SEA WALL - £1.8-6 MILLION
  • RIP RAP - £0.8-3.6 MILLION
  • GROYNES - £0.1-1.5 MILLION
72
Q

COASTS: MANAGEMENT

HAPPISBURGH: BENEFITS TO PROTECTION

A
  • BY 2105, BETWEEN 20 AND 35 PROPERTIES WOULD BE SAVED, WORTH £4-7 MILLION
  • 45 HECTARES OF FARMLAND SAVED, WORTH £945,000
  • MANOR CARAVAN PARK SAVED, EMPLOYS MANY LOCALS
73
Q

COASTS: MANAGEMENT

HAPPISBURGH: LOCAL VIEWS ON SMP (2006)

A

“QUITE SIMPLY… IF SOME IDIOT FROM GOVERNMENT COMES ALONG HERE AND SAYS WE’VE GOT TO SACRIFICE EVERYTHING IN THE PUBLIC INTEREST, THEY CAN THINK AGAIN”

74
Q

COASTS: MANAGEMENT

HAPPISBURGH: COST/BENEFIT JUDGEMENT

A

The cost of building sea defences is about £6 million, very close to the value of the property saved and much higher than the compensation costs to residents. Context of whole SMP.

75
Q

COASTS: ENVIRONMENTAL REFUGEES

PLACES MOST AT RISK

A

The places most at risk from the sea-level rise predicted by 2100 are the Maldives, Tuvalu, the Seychelles and Barbados.

76
Q

COASTS: ENVIRONMENTAL REFUGEES

TUVALU AND NEW ZEALAND

A
  • Tuvalu’s highest point is 4.5 metres above sea level, and most land is only 1-2m above
  • New Zealand grants residency to 75 Tuvalu citizens each year under the Pacific Access Category Ballot as rising sea levels decrease its land area.
77
Q

COASTS: ENVIRONMENTAL REFUGEES

SEYCHELLES

A

80% of people in Seychelles live and work on the coast

78
Q

COASTS: ENVIRONMENTAL REFUGEES

MALDIVES

A

The Maldives has an average height of 1.5 m above sea level, but the population of 400,000 is too large to be easily accommodated elsewhere. Its government is negotiating with India, Sri Lanka and Australia to buy land.

79
Q

WATER CYCLE: EL NINO

OCCURENCE OF EL NINO

A

El Niño events usually occur every 3-7 years, and usually last for 18 months. El Niño events can trigger very dry conditions throughout the world. For example, the monsoon rains in India and South East Asia often fail.

80
Q

WATER CYCLE: EL NINO

AUSTRALIA 2006: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

A
  • In 2006, southern Australia had an extremely low rainfall season, the lowest since 1990.
  • This caused the River Murray to dry up in places, reducing food production, social well-being and water supply for locals.
81
Q

WATER CYCLE: EL NINO

AUSTRALIA 2006: ECONOMIC IMPACT

A
  • The basin is often referred to as Australia’s food basket, as agriculture here is a key economic activity and the area contains half of Australia’s arable land and 70% of its population.
  • Six million sheep died as a result of the drought whilst thousands migrated away from the Murray Darling Basin.
82
Q

WATER CYCLE: EL NINO

AUSTRALIA 2006: CONTEXT

A

The Murray-Darling basin covers 14% of Australia and provides three-quarters of the water consumed nationally.

83
Q

WATER CYCLE: EL NINO

SOCIAL IMPACTS FOUND IN THE 2014-15 BRAZIL DROUGHT

A
  • The depletion of Brazil’s 17 largest reservoirs to dangerously low levels (see Figure 2)-some down to just 1% of capacity.
  • Increased groundwater abstraction, which led aquifers to become dangerously low.
  • Water rationing for 4 million people; water supplies were cut off for three days a week in some towns.
84
Q

WATER CYCLE: EL NINO

ECONOMIC IMPACTS FOUND IN THE 2014-15 BRAZIL DROUGHT

A
  • The halting of HEP production, led to power cuts. Around 70% of Brazil’s electric generation (66%).
  • A reduced crop of Arabica coffee beans (Brazil is the world’s largest producer of these). which pushed up global coffee prices by 50%.
85
Q

WATER CYCLE: EL NINO

HUMAN CAUSES/EXACERBATION FOR DROUGHT IN THE 2014-15 BRAZIL DROUGHT

A
  • Water becomes scarcer as seen with the Sao Paulo state’s industries increasingly using groundwater supplies as rivers ran dry.
  • Water shortage lead to people dilling illegal wells. About 70% of all new wells in the state were illegal.
86
Q

WATER CYCLE: EL NINO

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS FOUND IN THE 2014-15 BRAZIL DROUGHT

A
  • IN THE PATANAL, TREE MORTALITY INCREASED

- WILDFIRES. MAJOR THREAT WHEN CATTLE FARMERS CLEAR VEGETATION LEFT UNGRAZED, BUT DRY CONDITIONS EASILY SPREAD FIRES.

87
Q

WATER CYCLE: EL NINO

CONTEXT OF PATANAL IN THE 2014-15 BRAZIL DROUGHT

A
  • LARGE WETLAND, 140,000 KM2 LIES IN BRAZIL

- FLOODING COVER 80% OF THE PATANAL, AND 60% OF FLOODWATER IS RETAINED NEAR THE RIVER

88
Q

WATER CYCLE: FLOODING

SOCIAL IMPACTS FOUND IN STORM DESMOND

A
  • 1 DEATH IN CUMBRIA
  • 19,000 HOMES FLOODED ACROSS NORTHERN ENGLAND
  • 43,000 HOMES WERE AFFECTED BY POWERCUTS IN CUMBRIA
89
Q

WATER CYCLE: FLOODING

ECONOMIC IMPACTS FOUND IN STORM DESMOND

A
  • DAMAGE DONE TO CUMBRIA WAS £500 MILLION
  • INSURANCE CLAIMS CAUSED BY FLOODING ACROSS THE UK EXCEEDED £6 BILLION
  • MANY BUSINESSES CLOSED AND TRANSPORT AND INFRASTRUCTURE WERE CLOSED (CUMBRIA)
90
Q

WATER CYCLE: FLOODING

HUMAN CAUSES/EXACERBATION FOR STORM DESMOND IN CUMBRIA

A
  • CHANGING LAND USE - GEORGE MONBIOT REFERS TO THE CUMBRIAN LANDSCAPE AS “SHEEP-WRECKED UPLANDS.” SUGGESTS DEFORESTATION FOR FARMLAND
  • MISMANAGING RIVERS - NO DREDGING OF THE GRAVEL RAISING THE RAISED RIVER BED REGARDLESS OF 4.4 METTRE HIGH DEFENCES. IN KESWICK
  • URBAN EXPANSION TO FLOOD PLAINS
91
Q

WATER CYCLE: FLOODING

FUTURE MITIGATION OF FLOOD RISK IN CUMBRIA

A
  • GOVERNMENT PLEDGED TO SPEND £2.3 BILLION ON FLOOD DEFENCES BETWEEN 2016 AND 2022
  • ENVIRONMENT AGENCY BELIEVES TO USE SOFT-ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS LIKE REFORESTATION, RESTORATION OF FLOOD PLAINS, AND REFUSING PLANNING PERMISSION
92
Q

WATER CYCLE: CLIMATE CHANGE

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS FOUND IN CALIFORNIA DROUGHT 2014

A
  • Windy and warm weather lead to forest fires - environmental damage, air pollution, destruction of wildlife and habitats, life risk and property.
  • Cost the Californian government $2.7 billion a year - less state money to be spent on services.
  • Snowpack levels in 2015 were record low. Crucial since meltwater provides 1/3 of water used by Californian cities.
93
Q

WATER CYCLE: CLIMATE CHANGE

ECONOMIC IMPACTS FOUND IN CALIFORNIA DROUGHT 2014

A

Californian farms lost $1.8 billion and 10,000 jobs.

94
Q

WATER CYCLE: CLIMATE CHANGE

SOCIAL IMPACTS FOUND IN CALIFORNIA DROUGHT 2014

A
  • Water shortages and restrictions.
  • Competition over the water supply for agriculture, domestic use and aquatic ecosystems – could escalate to conflict over water use.
95
Q

WATER CYCLE: CLIMATE CHANGE

CAUSE FOR CALIFORNIA MEGA-DROUGHTS

A
  • In normal winters, southwest winds from the ocean deliver water. Recently, for unexplained reasons, these winds have failed California.
  • Tree ring studies: Very little of the California drought can be attributed to climate change with any certainty.
  • Cooler water temperatures – known as La Niñas – tend to produce drier conditions in the west. El Niño conditions would cause above average rainfall.
96
Q

WATER CYCLE: CLIMATE CHANGE

SOCIAL IMPACTS FROM DROUGHT IN SAHEL

A
  • Subsistence farmers’ crops fail and livestock dies. This can lead to famine and hunger.
  • Commercial farms growing cash crops such as cotton lose income, which may cause unemployment.
  • With less food being grown and an increase in demand, food prices increase.
97
Q

WATER CYCLE: CLIMATE CHANGE

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS FROM DROUGHT IN SAHEL

A
  • Seasonal rivers and water holes dry up, so organisms which live in them or rely on them for water may die.
  • Vegetation dies causing animals depending on it for food or shelter to perish or migrate.
  • Increased soil erosion. Eroded material is washed into rivers or water holes resulting in contamination.
98
Q

WATER CYCLE: CLIMATE CHANGE

CONTEXT OF THE DROUGHT IN SAHEL

A
  • Overgrazing and deforestation on marginal land can lead to desertification. With less vegetation there is less transpiration and evaporation from the soil, causing less rainfall.
  • Some scientists believe climate change has reduced rainfall or made it less predictable.
99
Q

WATER CYCLE: GENERAL

STATISTIC ON WATER PERCENTAGES

A
  • 2.5% of water is freshwater.
  • 1% of freshwater is easily accessible freshwater.
  • 96.9% of total water is found in the oceans.
  • Rivers only hold 0.007% of total water - but are the main water source for humans.
100
Q

CARBON CYCLE: THE ENERGY MIX

URBAN CONSUMPTION IN LONDON

A
  • OVER HALF OF THE WORLD LIVES IN CITIES
  • CITIES CONSUME 75% OF THE WORLD’S ENERGY AND PRODUCE 80% OFITS GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
  • CITY OF LONDON GENERATES 1.7 MILLION TONNES OF CARBON EACH YEAR
101
Q

CARBON CYCLE: THE ENERGY MIX

PHYSICAL AVAILABILITY: UK

A
  • UK USED TO BE DEPENDED ON DOMESTIC COAL FROM SOUTH WALES AND NORTH-EAST ENGLAND
  • GLOBAL LEADERS IN NUCLEAR TECH FROM 1950-1970
  • LARGE RESERVES OF NORTH SEA GAS AND OIL
102
Q

CARBON CYCLE: THE ENERGY MIX

PHYSICAL AVAILABILITY: NORWAY

A
  • MOUNTAINOUS AND PLENTY OF RAINFALL, GOOD FOR HEP

- OIL AND NATURAL GAS IS IN TERRITORIAL WATERS

103
Q

CARBON CYCLE: THE ENERGY MIX

COSTS: UK

A
  • NORTH SEA RESERVES IS A SECURE SOURCE OF DEPENDENCY ON MIDDLE EASTERN OL AFTER PRICES ROSE IN THE EARLY 1970S
  • NORTH SEA OIL IS EXPENSIVE TO EXTRACT, MEANING IF PRICES FALL (LIKE IN 2014-15), IT BECOMES LESS VIABLE
104
Q

CARBON CYCLE: THE ENERGY MIX

COSTS: NORWAY

A
  • NORSK HYDRO RUNS OVER 600 HEP SITES, SUPPLYING 97.5% OF NORWAY’S RENEWABLE ELECTRICITY
  • HEP COSTS ARE LOW ONCE CAPITAL INVESTMENT IS DONE.
  • HOWEVER, THE TRANSFER OF ELECTRICITY FROM REMOTE TO URBAN POPULATIONS ARE EXPENSIVE
105
Q

CARBON CYCLE: THE ENERGY MIX

ENVIRONMENTAL PRIORITIES: UK

A
  • 2015, UK COMMITTED TO A 40% REDUCTION IN DOMESTIC GREENHOUSE GASES BY 2030
  • HOWEVER, UK ALSO ABANDONED ‘GREEN DEAL’ CONSERVATION AND INSULATION SCHEMES IN 2015
  • IN 2015, CO2 EMISSIONS WERE 7.13 TONNES PER CAPITA (DOWN FROM PEAK OF 11.5 IN 1980)
106
Q

CARBON CYCLE: THE ENERGY MIX

ENVIRONMENTAL PRIORITIES: NORWAY

A
  • 2015, NORWAY COMMITTED TO A 40% REDUCTION IN DOMESTIC GREENHOUSE GASES BY 2030
  • NORWAY’S POLICY FOR CHANGE WAS LAUNCHED IN 2016 WITH A DOMESTIC TARGET OF BEING CARBON NEUTRAL BY 2050
  • IN 2015, CO2 EMISSIONS WERE 11.74 TONNES PER CAPITA (UP FROM 11.6 IN 1989)
107
Q

CARBON CYCLE: THE ENERGY MIX

LEVEL OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: UK

A
  • GDP PER CAPITA = $41,200 (2015)
  • ENERGY USE PER CAPITA = 2752 KG OIL EQUIVELANT (2014)
  • AVERAGE ANNUAL HOUSEHOLD ENERGY COSTS - £1300 (2015)
108
Q

CARBON CYCLE: THE ENERGY MIX

LEVEL OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: NORWAY

A
  • GDP PER CAPITA = $61,500 (2015)
  • ENERGY USE PER CAPITA = 5854 KG OIL EQUIVELANT (2014)
  • AVERAGE ANNUAL HOUSEHOLD ENERGY COSTS - £2400 (2015)
109
Q

CARBON CYCLE: THE ENERGY MIX

ENERGY TNCS: EXAMPLES

A
  • BP (UK) AND SHELL (UK-NETHERLANDS)

- PETROBRAS (BRAZIL) AND GAZPROM (RUSSIA)

110
Q

CARBON CYCLE: THE ENERGY MIX

ENERGY TNCS: OUTPUT PER DAY (2014-15)

A
  1. ARAMCO - 12
  2. GAZPROM - 8.3
  3. NATIOONAL IRANIAN OIL - 6
  4. EXXON/MOBIL - 4.7
111
Q

CARBON CYCLE: THE ENERGY MIX

CONSUMERS: RENEWABLES

A

CONSUMERS UP UNTIL 2015 INSTALLED SOLAR PANELS IN THE UK BECAUSE OF LARGE GOVERNMENT SUBSIDISATION

112
Q

CARBON CYCLE: THE ENERGY MIX

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT: AIMS

A
  • AIM TO FULFIL CO2 TARGETS AND FOSSIL FUEL DEPENDENCY

- UK GOVERNMENT ALLOWS DEVELOPMENT OF HINKLEY POINT C (MADE FROM TNC BACKED BY BOTH FRENCH AND CHINESE GOVERNMENT)

113
Q

CARBON CYCLE: THE ENERGY MIX

OPEC: STATS AND AIM

A
  • HOLDS 2/3 OF THE WORLD’S OIL RESERVES
  • ACCOUNTED FOR 44% OF WORLD OIL PRODUCTION
  • ATTEMPTS TO STABILISE OIL PRICES
114
Q

CARBON CYCLE: THE ENERGY MIX

OPEC: RESPONSE (2012-16)

A

IN 2012-16, IT MAINTAINED HIGH OUTPUT TO KEEP PRICES LOW TO COMPETE WITH THE USA’S INCREASED OIL PRODUCTION

115
Q

CARBON CYCLE: THE ENERGY MIX

USA AND FRANCE EVALUATION

A
  • In the USA, over 3/4 of energy comes from fossil fuels. The French energy mix is very different, with half its energy coming from fossil fuels and around 40% coming from nuclear energy.
  • In terms of energy security, France is much less well placed than the USA, if only because nearly half of its primary energy is imported. The USA is much more self-sufficient.
116
Q

CARBON CYCLE: RENEWABLES AND RECYCLABLES

NUCLEAR ENERGY: HINKLEY POSITIVES

A
  • Will provide 7% of the UK’s electricity
  • Privately invested in by EDF (85%)
  • China general nuclear takes a 33% stake in the project
  • 25 000 jobs
  • Part of the plan to phase out coal by 2025
117
Q

CARBON CYCLE: RENEWABLES AND RECYCLABLES

NUCLEAR ENERGY: HINKLEY NEGATIVES

A
  • Costs to consumers (£92.5 per megawatt-hour)
  • Safety and environmental concerns
  • Delays and costs overrun £18 bn budget could be three times more than expected
  • Takes 10 000 years to decay
118
Q

CARBON CYCLE: RENEWABLES AND RECYCLABLES

UK ENERGY: STATUS

A
  • HAS 150 YEARS WORTH OF COAL RESERVES

- ENERGY INSECURE DUE TO 60% BEING IMPORTED

119
Q

CARBON CYCLE: RENEWABLES AND RECYCLABLES

UK ENERGY: EFFORTS TO BE DIVERSIFY

A
  • SOLAR POWER IS GROWING RAPIDLY - UP BY 86% BETWEEN 2014 AND 2015. (HOWEVER, EXPANDED DUE TO GOVERNMENT SUBSIDIES)
  • HINKLEY POINT C WILL PROVIDE 7% OF THE UK’S ELECTRICITY
120
Q

CARBON CYCLE: RENEWABLES AND RECYCLABLES

UK ENERGY: SOLAR POWER

A
  • CHAPEL LAND SOLAR FARM, CHRISTCHURCH COSTS £50 MILLION TO COVER AND AREA EQUAL TO 175 FOOTBALL PITCHES
  • SERVERS 60,000 HOUSEHOLDS
  • HOWEVER, SUPPORTERS OF THE CPRE CLAIM IT MAKES ENERGY SOURCES EXPENSIVE AND CONSUMES PRODUCTIVE FARMLAND
  • SOLAR PANELS CAN ONLY COLLECT 15-20% OF SOLAR LIGHT
121
Q

COASTS: COASTAL MANAGEMENT

COASTAL MANAGEMENT IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: ENVIRONMENTAL COSTS

A
  • IN JIANGSU, CHINA, RATES OF EROSION EXCEED 80 M/YEAR IN SOME PLACES
  • AROUND 30% OF MALAYSIA’S COAST IS ERODING AND RATES OF 50 M/YEAR IN SOUTHERN VIETNAM
  • IN WEST BENGAL, RATES OF 6M/YEAR ARE COMMON
122
Q

COASTS: COASTAL MANAGEMENT

COASTAL MANAGEMENT IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: SOCIAL COSTS

A
  • THE MAIN LOSERS ARE TTHE POOREST. FARMERS USUALLY LACK FORMAL LAND TITLES SO CAN NOT CLAIM COMPENSATION.
  • TOURISM. IN PHUKET, EROSION IS A SERIOUS ISSUE. BEACH SAND HAS BEEN LOST SIGNIFICANTLY.
123
Q

COASTS: COASTAL MANAGEMENT

COASTAL MANAGEMENT IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: RESPONSES

A
  • HOTEL OWNERS RESORT TO SANDBAGGING TO TRY TO MINIMISE EROSION. (THAILAND)
  • LOCALS USE AD-HOC METHODS SUCH AS BAMBOO FENCING TO TRY TO REDUCE THE POWER OF ERODING WAVES. (THAILAND)
124
Q

COASTS: COASTAL MANAGEMENT

COASTAL MANAGEMENT IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: ECONOMIC COSTS (THAILAND)

A

Estimates of tourism revenue directly contributing to the GDP of 12 trillion baht range from one trillion baht to 2.53 trillion baht, the equivalent of 9% to 17.7% of GDP.

A-Level Geography (34 decks)

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