EXAM TECHNIQUE: EVIDENCE AND EXPLANATION Flashcards

Question

TECTONICS: HAZARD MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES TO MODIFY THE LOSS: EXAMPLE OF SHORT AND LONG TERM AID

Answer 1

SHORT-TERM - Dominican Republic gave food and water aid in the first 24 hours. (Haiti 2010) LONG-TERM - In June 2010 there was a World Summit for the Future of Haiti: 'solidarity beyond the crisis' of 54 countries and 35 organisations committed $11 billion to reconstruction projects. (Haiti 2010)

Answer 2

1/4 billion cubic meters of ash over a month due to the interaction between the ash and the glacier ice. Good strategy to implement reinforced roofing.

Answer 3

Katla is being monitored as each recorded eruption of Eyjafjallajökull has preceded an eruption of Katla, the Icelandic people and airports across Europe have been told to prepare.

Answer 4

Compensation for those stranded and accommodation paid for - insurance. Special state fund, paid for by taxpayer, compensates private homes or businesses for damage to building resulting from natural catastrophes.

Answer 5

GROYNES - Cost £150-250 per metre SEA WALL - £3000-10,000 per metre RIP RAP - £1300-6000 per metre

Answer 6

GROYNES - Impact on physical processes: Deposition and beach accretion Prevention of longshore drift, sediment starvation and increased erosion downdrift. SEA WALL - Destruction of the natural cliff face and foreshore environment If reflective, it can reduce beach volume RIP RAP - Reduced wave energy Sediment deposition between rocks

Answer 7

BEACH NOURISHMENT - Beach nourishment typically costs more than £2000 per metre, but ongoing costs are high CLIFF REGRADING - Cliff regrading and drainage commonly costs £10,000 per metre DUNE STABILISATION - Fencing costs £400-2000 per 100 m and replanting £1000 per 100 m (1400-3000)

Answer 8

BEACH NOURISHMENT - Needs constant maintenance and dredging may have consequences on local coastal habitats CLIFF REGRADING - Cliff may collapse suddenly as the cliff is drier leading to rock falls which pose a hazard and may look unnatural DUNE STABILISATION - Planting is time-consuming

Answer 9

East Anglia is sediment cell 3 of the UK coastal system. Running geographically from the Wash to the Thames are eight towns of interest.

Answer 10

Groynes, artificial reefs and sea walls are reducing sediment available further along the sediment cell. With little sediment in front the cliffs are exposed to more marine erosion. This is known as Terminal Groyne Syndrome.

Answer 11

Even in a hot, wet climate, basalt (igneous rock) weathers at a rate of 1-2 mm every 1000 years.

Answer 12

Carbonation increases in winter because calcium bicarbonate is more soluble in cold conditions.

Answer 13

A hot, wet climate encourages chemical and biological weathering.

Answer 14

In April 2013, there was a large blockfall in St Oswald's Bay on the South Dorset Coast where an 80 m section of chalk cliff was detached overnight.

Answer 15

An example of rotational slumping is at Christchurch Bay, in Barton-on-Sea, near Lymington in Hampshire, where unconsolidated sands overlie clay. The bedding plane between sand and clay dips seawards.

Answer 16

Category 4 cyclone, air pressure 944 mb, 240 kmph and 6 m storm surges.

Answer 17

60% of Bangladesh low lying, less than 3 m above sea level.

Answer 18

15,000 people were killed and 55,000 injured. 1.6 million homes were destroyed.

Answer 19

However, the impacts of deaths were much lower than in the 1970 Bhola Cyclone where 300,000 were killed. ($90 million economic loss) Improved warnings, embankments and cyclone shelter networks save many lives.

Answer 20

IPCC predicts a further 18-59 cm rise in sea level by 2100

Answer 21

Low lying coastlines are only 1-2 m high above (high tide) sea level so they are at risk of flooding.

Answer 22

Bangladesh occupies the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, 60% of the country is less than 3 m high above sea level.

Answer 23

The Maldives archipelago in the Indian Ocean has a population of 340,000 spread across 1,200 islands. The highest point in the Maldives is only 2.3 m above sea level.

Answer 24

Malé, the main island and capital, is protected by a 3 m sea wall.

Answer 25

50 large islands in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta subsided by 1.5 m since 1960.

Answer 26

A 100 m belt of mangrove forest is estimated to reduce wave height by 40%.

Answer 27

An estimated 50% world's mangrove forests were removed since 1950 - 1/4 of the loss for the creation of shrimp farms, and lots were removed for tourist beaches.

Answer 28

A 40 cm sea-level rise would permanently submerge 11% of Bangladesh, creating 7-10 million environmental refugees.

Answer 29

The Maldives have an average height of 1.5 m above sea level, but its population of 400,000 is too large to be easily accommodated elsewhere. Its highest point is 2.3 m above sea level, and a 50 cm rise would flood 77% of it.

Answer 30

Sea level will rise by 18-59 cm by 2100. The are area of the world's major deltas at risk from coastal flooding is likely to increase by 50%.

Answer 31

In the North Atlantic, the number of tropical storms becoming hurricanes has risen from 6 in the 1900s to 8 per year from 2000-2016. However, this is only low confidence - no observed increase in maximum intensity in the Pacific and Indian Oceans over the last 20 years of monitoring.

Answer 32

15 fatalities across the UK, Holland, Germany and Belgium.

Answer 33

Scotland’s rail network had to be closed and 100,000 homes lost their electricity.

Answer 34

- In December 2013, there was a large depression which moves South East from the North Sea. - Wind speeds over 140 mph were recorded in parts of Scotland - The North Sea becomes shallower in Southern England, which leads to higher wave heights in the South

Answer 35

Rock Armour at a cost of £2 million. The coast protection works were put in to defend 450 metres of cliff line using 61,500 tonnes of rock armour and groynes.

Answer 36

There was £2.9 million of damage a year before the management was put in place. It produced a sandy beach and also protects the town and the B1242.

Answer 37

South of Mappleton, the rate of erosion has increased significantly.

Answer 38

Sea Walls and a Wooden Groynes repaired and built at a cost of £5.2m.

Answer 39

There is up to 3m of erosion per year because the cliffs are formed from weak boulder clay. The management protects tourist features such as arcades and hotels and creates a sandy beach.

Answer 40

- Groynes prevent material from reaching popular seaside towns to the South. - Tourism leads to congestion in the summer, negatively impacting locals. - The wall is an unattractive feature

Answer 41

Rock Armour at a cost of £4.5m

Answer 42

There is a Gas Terminal at Easington and 2.25% of all UK gas comes through this station.

Answer 43

- The scheme protects the gas terminal, not the village. | - It is preventing material from reaching Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) further South such as sand dunes.

Answer 44

- The coastline is against the North Sea. - It is Europe's fastest eroding coastline because it is made from Boulder clay. The boulder clay was leftover from the last ice age so it is very weak, soft and crumbling. - The coastline has retreated

Answer 45

- £160,000 COULD BE AVAILABLE TO THE MANOR CARAVAN PARK TO ASSIST IN RELOCATING TO A NEW SITE - RESIDENTS COULD GET UP TO £2000 EACH IN RELOCATION EXPENSES - SOCIAL COSTS AS VILLAGE BECOMES MORE DEGRADED

Answer 46

- SEA WALL - £1.8-6 MILLION - RIP RAP - £0.8-3.6 MILLION - GROYNES - £0.1-1.5 MILLION

Answer 47

- BY 2105, BETWEEN 20 AND 35 PROPERTIES WOULD BE SAVED, WORTH £4-7 MILLION - 45 HECTARES OF FARMLAND SAVED, WORTH £945,000 - MANOR CARAVAN PARK SAVED, EMPLOYS MANY LOCALS

Answer 48

"QUITE SIMPLY... IF SOME IDIOT FROM GOVERNMENT COMES ALONG HERE AND SAYS WE'VE GOT TO SACRIFICE EVERYTHING IN THE PUBLIC INTEREST, THEY CAN THINK AGAIN"

Answer 49

The cost of building sea defences is about £6 million, very close to the value of the property saved and much higher than the compensation costs to residents. Context of whole SMP.

Answer 50

The places most at risk from the sea-level rise predicted by 2100 are the Maldives, Tuvalu, the Seychelles and Barbados.

Answer 51

- Tuvalu's highest point is 4.5 metres above sea level, and most land is only 1-2m above - New Zealand grants residency to 75 Tuvalu citizens each year under the Pacific Access Category Ballot as rising sea levels decrease its land area.

Answer 52

80% of people in Seychelles live and work on the coast

Answer 53

The Maldives has an average height of 1.5 m above sea level, but the population of 400,000 is too large to be easily accommodated elsewhere. Its government is negotiating with India, Sri Lanka and Australia to buy land.

Answer 54

El Niño events usually occur every 3-7 years, and usually last for 18 months. El Niño events can trigger very dry conditions throughout the world. For example, the monsoon rains in India and South East Asia often fail.

Answer 55

- In 2006, southern Australia had an extremely low rainfall season, the lowest since 1990. - This caused the River Murray to dry up in places, reducing food production, social well-being and water supply for locals.

Answer 56

- The basin is often referred to as Australia’s food basket, as agriculture here is a key economic activity and the area contains half of Australia’s arable land and 70% of its population. - Six million sheep died as a result of the drought whilst thousands migrated away from the Murray Darling Basin.

Answer 57

The Murray-Darling basin covers 14% of Australia and provides three-quarters of the water consumed nationally.

Answer 58

- The depletion of Brazil's 17 largest reservoirs to dangerously low levels (see Figure 2)-some down to just 1% of capacity. - Increased groundwater abstraction, which led aquifers to become dangerously low. - Water rationing for 4 million people; water supplies were cut off for three days a week in some towns.

Answer 59

- The halting of HEP production, led to power cuts. Around 70% of Brazil's electric generation (66%). - A reduced crop of Arabica coffee beans (Brazil is the world's largest producer of these). which pushed up global coffee prices by 50%.

Answer 60

- Water becomes scarcer as seen with the Sao Paulo state’s industries increasingly using groundwater supplies as rivers ran dry. - Water shortage lead to people dilling illegal wells. About 70% of all new wells in the state were illegal.

Answer 61

- IN THE PATANAL, TREE MORTALITY INCREASED | - WILDFIRES. MAJOR THREAT WHEN CATTLE FARMERS CLEAR VEGETATION LEFT UNGRAZED, BUT DRY CONDITIONS EASILY SPREAD FIRES.

Answer 62

- LARGE WETLAND, 140,000 KM2 LIES IN BRAZIL | - FLOODING COVER 80% OF THE PATANAL, AND 60% OF FLOODWATER IS RETAINED NEAR THE RIVER

Answer 63

- 1 DEATH IN CUMBRIA - 19,000 HOMES FLOODED ACROSS NORTHERN ENGLAND - 43,000 HOMES WERE AFFECTED BY POWERCUTS IN CUMBRIA

Answer 64

- DAMAGE DONE TO CUMBRIA WAS £500 MILLION - INSURANCE CLAIMS CAUSED BY FLOODING ACROSS THE UK EXCEEDED £6 BILLION - MANY BUSINESSES CLOSED AND TRANSPORT AND INFRASTRUCTURE WERE CLOSED (CUMBRIA)

Answer 65

- CHANGING LAND USE - GEORGE MONBIOT REFERS TO THE CUMBRIAN LANDSCAPE AS "SHEEP-WRECKED UPLANDS." SUGGESTS DEFORESTATION FOR FARMLAND - MISMANAGING RIVERS - NO DREDGING OF THE GRAVEL RAISING THE RAISED RIVER BED REGARDLESS OF 4.4 METTRE HIGH DEFENCES. IN KESWICK - URBAN EXPANSION TO FLOOD PLAINS

Answer 66

- GOVERNMENT PLEDGED TO SPEND £2.3 BILLION ON FLOOD DEFENCES BETWEEN 2016 AND 2022 - ENVIRONMENT AGENCY BELIEVES TO USE SOFT-ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS LIKE REFORESTATION, RESTORATION OF FLOOD PLAINS, AND REFUSING PLANNING PERMISSION

Answer 67

- Windy and warm weather lead to forest fires - environmental damage, air pollution, destruction of wildlife and habitats, life risk and property. - Cost the Californian government $2.7 billion a year - less state money to be spent on services. - Snowpack levels in 2015 were record low. Crucial since meltwater provides 1/3 of water used by Californian cities.

Answer 68

Californian farms lost $1.8 billion and 10,000 jobs.

Answer 69

- Water shortages and restrictions. - Competition over the water supply for agriculture, domestic use and aquatic ecosystems – could escalate to conflict over water use.

Answer 70

- In normal winters, southwest winds from the ocean deliver water. Recently, for unexplained reasons, these winds have failed California. - Tree ring studies: Very little of the California drought can be attributed to climate change with any certainty. - Cooler water temperatures – known as La Niñas – tend to produce drier conditions in the west. El Niño conditions would cause above average rainfall.

Answer 71

- Subsistence farmers' crops fail and livestock dies. This can lead to famine and hunger. - Commercial farms growing cash crops such as cotton lose income, which may cause unemployment. - With less food being grown and an increase in demand, food prices increase.

Answer 72

- Seasonal rivers and water holes dry up, so organisms which live in them or rely on them for water may die. - Vegetation dies causing animals depending on it for food or shelter to perish or migrate. - Increased soil erosion. Eroded material is washed into rivers or water holes resulting in contamination.

Answer 73

- Overgrazing and deforestation on marginal land can lead to desertification. With less vegetation there is less transpiration and evaporation from the soil, causing less rainfall. - Some scientists believe climate change has reduced rainfall or made it less predictable.

Answer 74

- 2.5% of water is freshwater. - 1% of freshwater is easily accessible freshwater. - 96.9% of total water is found in the oceans. - Rivers only hold 0.007% of total water - but are the main water source for humans.

Answer 75

- OVER HALF OF THE WORLD LIVES IN CITIES - CITIES CONSUME 75% OF THE WORLD'S ENERGY AND PRODUCE 80% OFITS GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS - CITY OF LONDON GENERATES 1.7 MILLION TONNES OF CARBON EACH YEAR

Answer 76

- UK USED TO BE DEPENDED ON DOMESTIC COAL FROM SOUTH WALES AND NORTH-EAST ENGLAND - GLOBAL LEADERS IN NUCLEAR TECH FROM 1950-1970 - LARGE RESERVES OF NORTH SEA GAS AND OIL

Answer 77

- MOUNTAINOUS AND PLENTY OF RAINFALL, GOOD FOR HEP | - OIL AND NATURAL GAS IS IN TERRITORIAL WATERS

Answer 78

- NORTH SEA RESERVES IS A SECURE SOURCE OF DEPENDENCY ON MIDDLE EASTERN OL AFTER PRICES ROSE IN THE EARLY 1970S - NORTH SEA OIL IS EXPENSIVE TO EXTRACT, MEANING IF PRICES FALL (LIKE IN 2014-15), IT BECOMES LESS VIABLE

Answer 79

- NORSK HYDRO RUNS OVER 600 HEP SITES, SUPPLYING 97.5% OF NORWAY'S RENEWABLE ELECTRICITY - HEP COSTS ARE LOW ONCE CAPITAL INVESTMENT IS DONE. - HOWEVER, THE TRANSFER OF ELECTRICITY FROM REMOTE TO URBAN POPULATIONS ARE EXPENSIVE

Answer 80

- 2015, UK COMMITTED TO A 40% REDUCTION IN DOMESTIC GREENHOUSE GASES BY 2030 - HOWEVER, UK ALSO ABANDONED 'GREEN DEAL' CONSERVATION AND INSULATION SCHEMES IN 2015 - IN 2015, CO2 EMISSIONS WERE 7.13 TONNES PER CAPITA (DOWN FROM PEAK OF 11.5 IN 1980)

Answer 81

- 2015, NORWAY COMMITTED TO A 40% REDUCTION IN DOMESTIC GREENHOUSE GASES BY 2030 - NORWAY'S POLICY FOR CHANGE WAS LAUNCHED IN 2016 WITH A DOMESTIC TARGET OF BEING CARBON NEUTRAL BY 2050 - IN 2015, CO2 EMISSIONS WERE 11.74 TONNES PER CAPITA (UP FROM 11.6 IN 1989)

Answer 82

- GDP PER CAPITA = $41,200 (2015) - ENERGY USE PER CAPITA = 2752 KG OIL EQUIVELANT (2014) - AVERAGE ANNUAL HOUSEHOLD ENERGY COSTS - £1300 (2015)

Answer 83

- GDP PER CAPITA = $61,500 (2015) - ENERGY USE PER CAPITA = 5854 KG OIL EQUIVELANT (2014) - AVERAGE ANNUAL HOUSEHOLD ENERGY COSTS - £2400 (2015)

Answer 84

- BP (UK) AND SHELL (UK-NETHERLANDS) | - PETROBRAS (BRAZIL) AND GAZPROM (RUSSIA)

Answer 85

1. ARAMCO - 12 2. GAZPROM - 8.3 3. NATIOONAL IRANIAN OIL - 6 4. EXXON/MOBIL - 4.7

Answer 86

CONSUMERS UP UNTIL 2015 INSTALLED SOLAR PANELS IN THE UK BECAUSE OF LARGE GOVERNMENT SUBSIDISATION

Answer 87

- AIM TO FULFIL CO2 TARGETS AND FOSSIL FUEL DEPENDENCY | - UK GOVERNMENT ALLOWS DEVELOPMENT OF HINKLEY POINT C (MADE FROM TNC BACKED BY BOTH FRENCH AND CHINESE GOVERNMENT)

Answer 88

- HOLDS 2/3 OF THE WORLD'S OIL RESERVES - ACCOUNTED FOR 44% OF WORLD OIL PRODUCTION - ATTEMPTS TO STABILISE OIL PRICES

Answer 89

IN 2012-16, IT MAINTAINED HIGH OUTPUT TO KEEP PRICES LOW TO COMPETE WITH THE USA'S INCREASED OIL PRODUCTION

Answer 90

- In the USA, over 3/4 of energy comes from fossil fuels. The French energy mix is very different, with half its energy coming from fossil fuels and around 40% coming from nuclear energy. - In terms of energy security, France is much less well placed than the USA, if only because nearly half of its primary energy is imported. The USA is much more self-sufficient.

Answer 91

- Will provide 7% of the UK's electricity - Privately invested in by EDF (85%) - China general nuclear takes a 33% stake in the project - 25 000 jobs - Part of the plan to phase out coal by 2025

Answer 92

- Costs to consumers (£92.5 per megawatt-hour) - Safety and environmental concerns - Delays and costs overrun £18 bn budget could be three times more than expected - Takes 10 000 years to decay

Answer 93

- HAS 150 YEARS WORTH OF COAL RESERVES | - ENERGY INSECURE DUE TO 60% BEING IMPORTED

Answer 94

- SOLAR POWER IS GROWING RAPIDLY - UP BY 86% BETWEEN 2014 AND 2015. (HOWEVER, EXPANDED DUE TO GOVERNMENT SUBSIDIES) - HINKLEY POINT C WILL PROVIDE 7% OF THE UK'S ELECTRICITY

Answer 95

- CHAPEL LAND SOLAR FARM, CHRISTCHURCH COSTS £50 MILLION TO COVER AND AREA EQUAL TO 175 FOOTBALL PITCHES - SERVERS 60,000 HOUSEHOLDS - HOWEVER, SUPPORTERS OF THE CPRE CLAIM IT MAKES ENERGY SOURCES EXPENSIVE AND CONSUMES PRODUCTIVE FARMLAND - SOLAR PANELS CAN ONLY COLLECT 15-20% OF SOLAR LIGHT

Answer 96

- IN JIANGSU, CHINA, RATES OF EROSION EXCEED 80 M/YEAR IN SOME PLACES - AROUND 30% OF MALAYSIA'S COAST IS ERODING AND RATES OF 50 M/YEAR IN SOUTHERN VIETNAM - IN WEST BENGAL, RATES OF 6M/YEAR ARE COMMON

Answer 97

- THE MAIN LOSERS ARE TTHE POOREST. FARMERS USUALLY LACK FORMAL LAND TITLES SO CAN NOT CLAIM COMPENSATION. - TOURISM. IN PHUKET, EROSION IS A SERIOUS ISSUE. BEACH SAND HAS BEEN LOST SIGNIFICANTLY.

Answer 98

- HOTEL OWNERS RESORT TO SANDBAGGING TO TRY TO MINIMISE EROSION. (THAILAND) - LOCALS USE AD-HOC METHODS SUCH AS BAMBOO FENCING TO TRY TO REDUCE THE POWER OF ERODING WAVES. (THAILAND)

Answer 99

Estimates of tourism revenue directly contributing to the GDP of 12 trillion baht range from one trillion baht to 2.53 trillion baht, the equivalent of 9% to 17.7% of GDP.