A-Level Geography: Migration, Identity and Sovereignty EQ3

Question 1

8B.7 Global organisations are not new but have been important in the post-1945 world

How have IGOs grown in significance and influence since post-1945?

Answer 1

They provide political guidance judgement over a state government or economic support for developing countries.

Question 2

8B.7 Global organisations are not new but have been important in the post-1945 world

What was the first post-war IGO?

Answer 2

The United Nations.

Question 3

8B.7 Global organisations are not new but have been important in the post-1945 world

State the aims of the UN.

Answer 3

• Maintain international peach and security.
• Promote sustainable development.
• Protect human rights.
• Uphold international law.
• Deliver humanitarian aid.

Question 4

8B.7 Global organisations are not new but have been important in the post-1945 world

How does the UN provide emergency relief?

Answer 4

• The UN High Commissioner for Refugees organises refugee camps in conflict zones. For example, the UN helped to set up the Zaatari camp in Jordan to shelter refugees from the Syrian civil war.
• They aim to protect refugees and vulnerable people from further abuse.

Question 5

8B.7 Global organisations are not new but have been important in the post-1945 world

Why does the UN utilise sanctions? Give an example to which they were utilised.

Answer 5

• Sanctions are designed to force countries to change their policy by enforcing economic or social pain.
• Economic sanctions are restrictions on trade. Iran was put under economic sanctions whilst it was developing its nuclear capabilities.
• Cultural sanctions, for example, refusing to let countries participate in sporting fixtures can be enforced. Another international organisation, the IOC banned Russia from competing at the 2018 Olympics.

Question 6

8B.7 Global organisations are not new but have been important in the post-1945 world

How does the UN conduct war-crime trials?

Answer 6

• The International Criminal Court (ICC) was established at the Hague in the Netherlands to try individuals for crimes like genocide (attempts to destroy a racial or ethnic group).
• The trials at the ICC are very slow. Radovan Karadzic is a Bosnian Serb who was accused of the Srebrenica massacre in 1995. He was found guilty, but his trial lasted 8 years.

Question 7

8B.7 Global organisations are not new but have been important in the post-1945 world

How does the UN act as ‘peacekeepers?’

Answer 7

• UN troops have a peace-keeping role and are not allowed to engage in any military action unless they are protecting themselves.
• At the Srebrenica massacre in Bosnia, UN troops failed to help a group of Muslims, who were then slaughtered by Karadzic’s troops.
• In 2018, there were UN peace-keeping troops stationed in Sudan, Kosovo, Haiti and Lebanon.

Question 8

8B.7 Global organisations are not new but have been important in the post-1945 world

Why do countries conduct unilateral interventions outside the UN?

Answer 8

• Failed states - Countries whose governments have lost political control and can no longer fulfil basic responsibility of a sovereign state.
• ‘War on Terror’ - Attempts to counter international terrorism.
• Crimea - Russia annexed Crimea in the Ukraine in an act of unilateral action.

Question 9

8B.7 Global organisations are not new but have been important in the post-1945 world

Why did the UK and USA intervene in Syria without UN approval?

Answer 9

Theresa May in 2018 stated waiting for approval would be too late.

Question 10

8B.7 Global organisations are not new but have been important in the post-1945 world

Why does the USA and it’s allies conduct the ‘War on Terror’

Answer 10

After al-Qaeda’s attacks on the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington on 11th September 2001, the US and their allies began their ‘War on Terror’.

Question 11

8B.7 Global organisations are not new but have been important in the post-1945 world

What’s an example of the UN disputes escalating situations?

Answer 11

• During the Syrian Conflict, Russia and China wanted to an extent support the Assad regime.
• The USA, UK, and France wanted to support the rebels.
• Failure to come to a conclusive action.

Question 12

8B.7 Global organisations are not new but have been important in the post-1945 world

Why was the UN accused of failing in the Congo?

Answer 12

• UN forces in Congo have been accused of not providing aid after peacekeepers failed to provide assistance in Mavivi after attacks.
• In a 2014 report, Human Rights Watch accused peacekeepers of failing to respond to repeated calls for help during an attack killing 30 people.
• Peacekeeper were only 9km away but arrived two days later.

Question 13

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

What are the three main IGOs who have controlled the rules of financial flows and trade?

Answer 13

• World Trade Organisation (WTO)
• International Monetary Fund (IMF)
• The World Bank (WB)

Question 14

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

What were the primary aims of the WTO, IMF, and WB?

Answer 14

• The three IGOs have helped to maintain the dominance of ‘western’ capitalism as the dominant paradigm in the globalised economy.
• They support free trade and economic development.
• They initially established a fixed exchange rate system based on gold and the dollar, aiming to help increase international FDI and capital flows.
• Increasing the funding and capital available to developing countries helped them to develop and grow.

Question 15

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

What are the main criticisms of the World Bank?

Answer 15

• The World Bank lends money to the developing world to fund economic development and reduce poverty.
• The World Bank has helped developing countries develop connections with the global economy.
• It is sometimes criticised for having policies that prioritise economic development over social development.

Question 16

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

What are the main criticisms of the IMF?

Answer 16

• The IMF encourages developing countries to accept foreign direct investment (FDI) and open up their economies to free trade.
• The IMF is often criticised for promoting a ‘western’ model of economic development that works in the interests of developed nations and TNCs.

Question 17

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

Why did the USA have a disproportionate influence during the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944 over how the World Bank and IMF were designed?

Answer 17

• Many Western countries agreed on the policies, including a fixed exchange rate for any loans or financial assistance based on the US dollar and gold.
• The USA was the only country after WW2 left with a large amount of financial resources. The UK and other EU countries were almost bankrupt.
• Terms often favoured developed countries over developing.

Question 18

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

The IMF and WB would only help struggling countries if they agreed to what?

Answer 18

Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPS).

Question 19

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

What are SAPS?

Answer 19

Policies or terms of condition implemented if a country would like to receive a loan.

Question 20

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

What does SAPS include in its policies?

Answer 20

• Open up domestic markets to allow private investment.
• Reduce the role of government by privatising industries and services.
• Remove restrictions on capital so there are no limits on international investments.
• Reduce government spending by cutting infrastructure and welfare spending.
• Devalue currency to make exports cheaper.

Question 21

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

What had occurred in the 1980s in terms of global interest rates?

Answer 21

In the 1980s, global interest rates increased very rapidly. This caused substantial interest to be added to loans which increased global debts. Developing countries were mainly affected since the loan became unaffordable and quickly accumulated.

Question 22

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

What had occurred in the 2005 in terms of debts?

Answer 22

• Countries were struggling to pay off the interest of these loans and were ending up in further debt, which was not beneficial to their economy.
• In 2005, £30bn of debt of the eighteen poorest countries in the world was written-off thanks to a deal brokered by the G7 countries.

Question 23

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

What does HIPC stand for? How many nations are in this group?

Answer 23

• HIPC - Heavily Indebted Poor Countries.

- There are 37 nations in this group, including Ghana, Ethiopia, Afghanistan and Senegal.

Question 24

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

What was the aim of the HIPC scheme? What country achieved external debt cancellation?

Answer 24

• HIPC schemes aim to make sure that no country faces an unmanageable debt burden (amount of debt).
• Under HIPC schemes, countries must reduce poverty over time and meet other criteria. If they meet all of these criteria, then they may have all their external debt cancelled.
• Chad achieved this in 2015.

Question 25

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

Why is Africa Action, an NGO, critical of SAPS?

Answer 25

Africa Action, an NGO, is critical of SAPs, claiming that the assumption that the market leads to benefits for the rich and poor is flawed.

Question 26

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

What does the IMF and World Bank claim about Ghana’s SAP scheme?

Answer 26

Ghana launched its structural adjustment plan in 1983. The IMF and World Bank say it is one of the most successful SAPs in Africa.

Question 27

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

In 1992, what was Uganda’s total debt?

Answer 27

In 1992, the debt totalled $1.9 billion.

Question 28

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

How did the HIPC write-off scheme immediately impact Uganda?

Answer 28

• Government spending rose by 20% with 40% more spent on education and 70% more on healthcare.
• Free primary schooling was introduced, which meant 5 million extra children accessed education.
• Before debt relief, the school enrolment rate was 62%. By 2015, it was 93%.

Question 29

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

What was the GDP of Uganda 10-15 years after its debt cancellation?

Answer 29

• During or immediately after debt cancellation, the GDP was at $7.9 billion.
• 10-15 later, it is at a GDP of $27.5 billion as of 2015.

Question 30

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

What has helped led to the emergence of trade blocs between nations?

Answer 30

• The WTO accounts for 96.4% of world trade and 96.7% of global GDP. This shows the extent to which it has established free global trading.
• There are now several single markets where there are free movements of goods, services, and people between allied nations.
• However, a global single market is still unachievable. Due to this pseudo-failure, many trade blocs have emerged to be far more influential.

Question 31

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

What are the benefits to businesses within trade blocs?

Answer 31

• Businesses can benefit from economies of scale when operating within blocs.
• This is because they have access to larger markets and therefore can ‘scale up’ production, manufacturing bulk quantities, which in turn helps reduce unit costs and earn more profits.

Question 32

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

What are the issues with centripetal forces, such as harmonisation of economic policy and a common currency, trade blocs pushing a political union?

Answer 32

• Sharing laws and ideology takes time.
• Members may not want a union - as seen with the UK’s vote to leave the EU demonstrates.
• Some splintering may also occur as nationalist forces create centrifugal forces that drive organisations apart.

Question 33

8B.8 IGOs established after the Second World War have controlled the rules of world trade and financial flows

State the UK’s position on a political union.

Answer 33

The UK has welcomed the economic benefits of the EU single market, which provides access to 500 million people - but many are also worried about diluted UK sovereignty.

Question 34

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

In terms of rivers, how do IGOs like the UN seek to tackle their issues?

Answer 34

The UN Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (The Water Convention) seeks to protect and ensure the quantity, quality and sustainable use of transboundary water by cooperation.

Question 35

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

In terms of oceans, how do IGOs like the UN seek to tackle their issues?

Answer 35

• The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) seeks to manage navigational rights (shipping routes), offshore waters, seabed resources and ocean areas.
• The UNCLOS also manages the rights of the 42 land-locked states in the world.
• It encourages ‘rights of transit’ for landlocked states to ‘gain access to the sea’.

Question 36

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

In terms of the biosphere, how do IGOs seek to tackle their issues?

Answer 36

• The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an agreement between different national governments to try to control the trade of animals and plants.
• The Arabian Oryx is the national animal of the UAE and Qatar. CITES’ interventions have helped improve the species’ chances of survival.

Question 37

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

What is the controversy with regards to IGOs like CITES?

Answer 37

However, CITES has been fairly uninfluential in the illegal trade in ivory and rhino horn. Poachers and underground deals are endangering the Rhino species.

Question 38

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

In terms of the atmosphere, how do IGOs seek to tackle their issues?

Answer 38

• The Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the Ozone Layer banned the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
• CFCs were often found in fridges and freezers before the Montreal Protocol.
• The UN’s IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) has tried to work towards collective agreements on things like carbon dioxide emissions under the Kyoto Protocol and at the COP21 Agreement in Paris.

Question 39

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

What does the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) agreement state?

Answer 39

• Declares ownership of a state’s seas 20 nautical miles from their land.
• Gives landlocked countries entitlement to seas near them, enabling them to trade.
• Aims to protect marine biodiversity and ocean environments.

Question 40

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

How has the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) led to increased tensions over disputed territory?

Answer 40

• Disputes over new islands lay claim to untapped resources and military expansion opportunities.
• Case in the South China Sea - between China, Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea.
• Case also in the Arctic Island - causing conflict between the USA, Denmark, Canada and Russia due to its proximity to the Artic.

Question 41

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

How have IGOs responsibly managed the environment?

Answer 41

The Antarctic Treaty System was created to prevent nations from exploiting resources and spoiling the pristine Antarctica. This helps promote biodiversity and sustainability.

Question 42

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

What are the terms of the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)?

Answer 42

• The ATS banned all military activity on Antarctica and made it a zone free of nuclear tests. The disposal of radioactive waste in Antarctica is forbidden.
• The ATS also promoted international scientific research on Antarctica, guaranteeing every state the right to establish research stations.
• Ice cores from Antarctica have been vital in supporting the case for human-caused climate change.

Question 43

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

What are the terms of the Madrid Protocol?

Answer 43

• The Madrid Protocol was an extension of the ATS.
• The Madrid Protocol also banned mining activities in Antarctica, except if mining was done for scientific research purposes.

Question 44

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

What are the problems UNCLOS is addressing?

Answer 44

It attempts to define rights and responsibilities of nations in using the world’s oceans.

Question 45

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

How does UNCLOS attempt to resolve environmental problems?

Answer 45

The organisation provides guidelines for managing marine resources through creating Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) by extending territorial water zones to 200 nautical miles from the coast.

Question 46

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

What are EEZs?

Answer 46

An area of the sea in which a sovereign state has special rights regarding the exploration and use of marine resources, including energy production from water and wind.

Question 47

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

Why has UNCLOS been regarded as unsuccessful?

Answer 47

• Multiple examples are mainly due to state noncompliance.
• 12 States parties, including China, Haiti, India, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia, have included security as one of the matters in respect of which they claim to exercise jurisdiction in their contiguous zones, contrary to Article 33.
• Seen with China’s refusal to participate in a dispute-resolution procedure requested by the Philippines over an area in the South China Sea outside China’s exclusive economic zone that China claims for itself.

Question 48

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

What is Article 33 under UNCLOS?

Answer 48

1. In a zone contiguous to its territorial sea, described as the contiguous zone, the coastal State may exercise the control necessary to: (a) prevent infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and regulations within its territory or territorial sea;
   (b) punish infringement of the above laws and regulations committed within its territory or territorial sea.
2. The contiguous zone may not extend beyond 24 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.

Question 49

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

What are the problems the Montreal Protocol is addressing?

Answer 49

The Montreal Protocol, finalized in 1987, is a global agreement to protect the stratospheric ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS).

Question 50

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

What is the significance of CFCs?

Answer 50

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), along with other chlorine- and bromine-containing compounds, have been implicated in the accelerated depletion of ozone in the Earth’s stratosphere.

Question 51

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

How does the Montreal Protocol attempt to resolve environmental problems?

Answer 51

By 2009, it was the first global treaty to reach 197 signatories and to have achieved global ratification; by 2010, virtually all countries had phased out ODS.

Question 52

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

Why has the Montreal Protocol been regarded as successful?

Answer 52

• Definable causes-and-effect relationship.
• Little dispute over evidence.
• Funding assistance given to developing nations.
• Substitutes for CFC were already available.
• The 2019 hole is indeed the smallest since recording of its size began in 1982.

Question 53

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

Why are CFCs important to human safety?

Answer 53

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and halons destroy the earth’s protective ozone layer, which shields the earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV-B) rays generated from the sun.

Question 54

8B.9 IGOs have been formed to manage the environmental problems facing the world, with varying success

What can stratospheric ozone loss can result in potential harm to human health?

Answer 54

• Increased incidence of skin cancer and cataracts.
• Immune system system damage.
• Damage to terrestrial and aquatic plant life.
• Increased formation of ground-level ozone (smog).