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Exam 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

What happens in gene regulation and chromatin?

A

Tightly packed means genes are hidden and not available (Heterochromatin) and loosely packed means genes are not hidden and available (Euchromatin)

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2
Q

What groups tighten chromatin and what groups loosen them?

A

Acetylation group = loosens chromatin
Phosphorylation group = loosens chromatin
Methylation group = condenses chromatin

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3
Q

How are genes expressed when there is a lot of methylation, not a lot of methylation, and when there is a normal amount of methylation?

A

More methylation = no expression
Less or no methylation = high expression
Normal amount of methylation (some methylation) = normal expression

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4
Q

What are specialized transcription factors?

A

They enhance the activity of the gene or silence it, they do not bind to the promoter. Either bind before the promoter or after the promoter

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5
Q

What are general specialized transcription factors?

A

They do the same thing and bind to the promoter

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6
Q

What do activators do in gene expressions?

A

Enhance gene expressions

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7
Q

What is RNA splicing?

A

Where two mRNAs are made.

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8
Q

What are exons?

A

They are a sequence in RNA that are not cut out and are coding regions. They code for a specific domain

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9
Q

What introns?

A

They are a sequence in RNA that are cut out. They are non coding regions, and have potential to be codons.

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10
Q

What are the exons and introns in the transcript A mRNA and transcript B mRNA? (look at pic in your phone)

A

Transcript A
Exon 3 = Exon
Exon 4 = Intron

Transcript B
Exon 3 = Intron
Exon 4 = Exon

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11
Q

What is the initiation of translation?

A

Where ribosomes bind to the start codon on mRNA and does it’s translation process

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12
Q

What are regulatory proteins in the initiation of translation?

A

They bind to the 5 prime untranslated region (UTR) which prevents the ribosome from binding

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13
Q

What is life-span of mRNA in the initiation of translation?

A

Proteins that bind to the 3 prime UTR that initiate destructions

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14
Q

What does short life and long life mean?

A

Short life = quick response to environmental changes
Long life = long-term expression

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15
Q

What is protein processing?

A

Where proteins are in the inactive form and need certain actions to be activated again.

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16
Q

What is cleavage in protein processing?

A

the process of breaking the peptide bonds between amino acids in proteins

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17
Q

What is longevity of proteins in protein processing?

A

adding of ubiquitin to a protein and destroys it

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18
Q

What are some other molecular groups that you add to help with protein processing?

A

adding of phosphate and sugar groups to the proteins

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19
Q

What is the function of non-coding RNAs?

A

Bind to the mRNA
They block translation
Degradation (destroys) of target DNA

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20
Q

What are some examples of non-coding RNAs?

A

MicroRNAs (miRNA)
Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs)

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21
Q

How does cell division happen in bacteria?

A

Chromosome replication begins at the origin of replication
Then they go around in a circle
Origins of each new chromosome anchor to the cell membrane at opposite sides
Cell growth pulls chromosomes to opposite sides
Cell divides

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22
Q

What stage are most of the cells in our body in? And what happens with the cells in this stage?

A

G0, They carry out normal functions, not preparing for division

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23
Q

Why does a eukaryotic cell enter the cell cycle?

A

Grow
Repair
Reproduce

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24
Q

What is the G1 stage? And what happens to the cells that are in this stage?

A

Undergo intense metabolic activity and grow
Makes everything needed for DNA synthesis
Typical time 5-6 hours

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25
Q

What is the S phase? And what happens to the cells in that are in this phase?

A

DNA replication happens
Typical time 10-12 hours

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26
Q

What is the G2 stage? And what happens to the cells that are in this stage?

A

Cell growth
Makes all materials needed for cell division (phospholipids, microtubules, proteins, enzymes
Typical time 4-6 hours

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27
Q

What does the G stand for in the cell cycle?

A

Gap

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28
Q

What is the M stage? And what happens to the cells that are in this stage?

A

Where mitosis and cytokinesis take place

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29
Q

What is mitosis? And what happens during it?

A

Chromosomes condense (spaghetti like structure to being packets of ramen)
The nuclear membrane is going to break down
Chromosomes will line up in the center and be connected but then they will move to opposite sides of the cell
Occurs in distinct stages

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30
Q

What are sister chromatids?

A

opposite chromosomes and attract to each other

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31
Q

What is the prophase in mitosis?

A

Duplicated chromosomes condense and sister chromatids join in the center
Mitotic spindle (microtubules) begins to form

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32
Q

What is the prometaphase in mitosis?

A

Nuclear membrane is broken down
Chromosomes condense more
Mitotic spindle connects with the chromosomes in the center

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33
Q

What is the metaphase in mitosis?

A

Chromosomes align in the center
Sister chromatids attached to the microtubules on opposite sides/poles

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34
Q

What is the anaphase in mitosis?

A

Sister chromatids separate
Chromosomes move to opposite sides of the cell

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35
Q

What is the telophase in mitosis?

A

Nuclear membrane reforms
Chromosomes become less condenses
Microtubules disappear
Cleave furrow forms

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36
Q

What happens after mitosis?

A

Cytokinesis begins

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37
Q

What happens during cytokinesis?

A

Cleavage furrow constricts
Cell divides
Cells separate

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38
Q

What are the stages in the interphase stage?

A

G1, G2, S phase

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39
Q

What did Payton Rous do a study on in 1911?

A

Studied chickens and their tumors

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40
Q

What is an oncogene?

A

A gene that has the potential to cause cancer

41
Q

What causes cancer?

A

Cells that do uncontrolled cell division

42
Q

What are the 3 major check points in the cell cycle?

A

G1, G2, M

43
Q

What happens when cells get to the G1 checkpoint?

A

Basically regulates the cells and makes sure all the cells are good to go through to the next phase. And if something is wrong then it kicks it out of the cell cycle to the G0 stage or kills the cells if they are too bad (apoptosis)

44
Q

What happens at the G2 checkpoint?

A

Sees if the chromosome replication is chilling and if its good it goes ahead and moves on but if chromosomes are damaged then they are killed off (apoptosis)

45
Q

What happens at the M checkpoint?

A

Sees if each sister chromatid has spindle fibers attached to it and if its good then they pass through and it not they are killed off

46
Q

What are proto-oncogenes?

A

Regulate normal cell division
Involved in cell division
Monitor cell health
Terminate cell division

47
Q

What happens when proto-oncogenes mutate to oncogenes?

A

Drive a cell to multiply uncontrollably
makes the cell divide again and again and again
Unable to stop cell division

48
Q

What are the 4 mutations that can cause cancer (oncogenes) to develop?

A

Inheritance, viruses, mutations, carcinogens

49
Q

What are carcinogens?

A

Form free radicals and cause cancer

50
Q

What are free radicals?

A

They are unpaired electrons in the outer shell that are highly reactive and cause damages to lipids, proteins, DNA etc.

51
Q

What are somethings we need to avoid or limit to prevent cancer?

A

Alcohol & tobacco
Exposure to the sun
Highly processed foods
Burnt foods
Unprotected sex

52
Q

What are some things we need to do to more of to prevent cancer?

A

Add antioxidants, exercise more, do cancer screenings

53
Q

How do antioxidants help us prevent cancer?

A

They donate extra electrons to stabilize free radicals

54
Q

What are some different cancer treatments and how do doctors perform these treatments?

A

Surgery (cut it out)
Radiation (kills cells in a specific area)
Chemotherapy (kills rapidly-dividing cells, feeds the body chemicals)

55
Q

What are alleles?

A

Alternative forms of a the same gene
Created by mutations

56
Q

What is the dominate allele?

A

A gene that is higher or more dominate than the other gene more common (only need one gene to override other recessive genes)

57
Q

What is the recessive allele?

A

A gene that is lower or less dominate than other genes (need 2 or more genes to override the dominate genes)

58
Q

What type of mutations are likely to form a loss of function allele?
1. Missense mutation
2. Silent mutation
3. Frameshift mutation
4. White mutation
5.Nonsense mutation

A
  1. Missense mutation (answer)
    1. Frameshift mutation (answer)5.Nonsense mutation (answer)
59
Q

What is altered activity with alleles?

A

Adds sugars to the H-antigen to our red blood cells (glycosyl-transferase)

60
Q

What are the 3 alleles in humans (blood types)?

A

Ia (for blood type A)
Ib (for blood type B)
I (for blood type O)

61
Q

What alleles are dominate and which ones are non dominate in red blood cells?

A

Ia, Ib are dominate, i is non dominate

62
Q

Why are Ia & Ib dominate but not i?

A

Because Ia & Ib are active and i is not active

63
Q

How do we get AB blood type?

A

Because Ia & Ib are both dominate so they are both present in red blood cells

64
Q

What alleles does attenuation effect?

A

The eye color alleles

65
Q

How do we get different eye colors?

A

Alleles produce more melanin than others and that is how you get eye color

66
Q

How do diploid organisms maintain a diploid genome when producing children?

A

One set of each chromosome (one sister chromatid) is given to produce a child. Mom and dad both give 23 chromosomes.

67
Q

How do we go from diploid cells to haploid gametes?

A

meiosis

68
Q

What is the main propose of meiosis?

A

Replication of haploid gametes

69
Q

What happens in the meiosis 1?

A

Chromosomes separate into 2 different cells. It goes through the same steps as mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis)

70
Q

What happens in meiosis 2 stage?

A

sister chromatids separate into 4 different cells, It goes through the same steps as mitosis and meiosis stage 1 ((prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis)

71
Q

What is crossing over in genetic diversity?

A

2 chromosomes pair up and exchange segments of their material (creates new combos of alleles and makes new alleles)

72
Q

How did Mendel cross pollinate the garden peas?

A

He had to pull apart the pedals of the garden peas to cross pollinate them.

73
Q

What was the process that Mendel did to cross pollinate the peas?

A

Mendel would cross breed parental generation (the pure breeds) then would get the F1 generation
Then would pollinate 2 F1 generation plants and would get the F2 generation

74
Q

What is the ratio of purple to white flower plants in F2 generation 705 purple and 224 white? (dived purple by white)

A

3:1

75
Q

Which chromosome determines the sex of a baby?

A

The Y chromosome

76
Q

Which chromosome does not have many sex related characteristics?

A

The X chromosome

77
Q

What type of chromosomes do females and males pass down to their offspring?

A

Females only the X chromosome
Males the X and Y chromosome

78
Q

What is the X-Y system?

A

Sex is determined by the combo of sex chromosomes by the sperm and egg (X or Y)

XY= male
XX= female

79
Q

What is a karyotype?

A

When we take cells that are in the process of cell division and take them and line them up and take a picture

80
Q

What is the X-O system?

A

Sex is determined by the number of sex chromosomes sperm and egg

XX = female
X= male

81
Q

What is the Z-W system?

A

Sex is determined by the combo of sex chromosomes by the egg

Females= ZW
Males= ZZ

82
Q

What does the N, 2n, and 4n symbols mean?

A

N is the symbol for haploid, 2n is the symbol of diploid, 4n is the symbol of tetraploid

83
Q

What was the study Thomas hunt morgan did?

A

Studied fruit flies and sex related genes
Found that crosses between wildtype females and white eyed males the white eyed trait was only found in males

84
Q

Why are males affected by the X-linked diseases?

A

Males are affected most by these x-linked diseases because they only have one X chromosome

85
Q

Why are females not affected from the X linked diseases?

A

The second X chromosome will be more dominant than the disease in the other X chromosome

86
Q

What happens when inactivation occurs in the embryotic cells? And what are the names of the X chromosomes?

A

Active Maternal X
Active Paternal X
Half express one allele and the other half express another (one is active for a specific trait and one is not and vice versa)

87
Q

What are linked genes?

A

Close genes that are inherited together during crossing over

88
Q

What is nondisjunction?

A

The spindles do not work and don’t separate the chromosomes properly into 2 different cells (the sister chromatids)

89
Q

What is aneuploidy?

A

Abnormal number of chromosomes

90
Q

2n -1(chromosome) = what?

A

Monosomy (only have one chromosome)

91
Q

2n + 1 (chromosome) = what?

A

Trisomy (has all the chromosomes you need + an extra one)

92
Q

What is the XO: turners syndrome? And some characteristics?

A

The lack of the Y chromosome
Female characteristics
Short in height

93
Q

What is the XXY: Klinefelter’s syndrome? And some characteristics?

A

The gametes failed to get rid of an extra X chromosome and formed with a Y chromosome
Male characteristics
Breast growth
Breast cancer
Infertility
Learning difficulties

94
Q

What is the trisomy 21: down syndrome? and some characteristics?

A

adding an extra 21 chromosome
mental and physical challenges

95
Q

what does autosomal mean?

A

That 1-22 chromosomes do not have sex traits (X has some but not a lot)

96
Q

What is the haplo-diploid system?

A

Sex is determined by ploidy (number of chromosomes an organism has)

Males: haploid (unfertilized eggs)
Females: diploid (fertilized eggs)

97
Q

What molecule does DNA polymerase add to the growing strand in DNA replication?

A

Deoxyribose

98
Q

What molecule does DNA primase add to the growing strand in DNA replication?

A

Ribose

Biology (11 decks)

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