Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What is Evolution?
A
a process of biological change in which species accumulate differences from their ancestors as they adapt to different environments over time.
2
Q
Emergent Properties
A
a characteristic something/someone gains when it becomes part of a bigger system. ( help them better adapt to their environment)
3
Q
Cell theory
A
The theory states that all living organisms are made of cells, which are the basic unit of life.
4
Q
What are the 5 themes of biology?
A
- Evolution, 2. Organization, 3. Information, 4. Interactions, 5. Energy matter
5
Q
Cells
A
The smallest working organism that can live on their own and make up EVERY living organism and tissues of the body
6
Q
What are the 2 types of cells?
A
Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic
7
Q
What is the biological levels of organization of living things? (simplest to complex)
A
sub atomic particles, atoms, molecules, organelle, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystem, and biosphere.
8
Q
What is a Prokaryotic cell?
A
Cells that are found in two groups of single-celled microorganisms, bacteria and archaea. They also lack a nucleus or other membrane-enclosed organelles.
9
Q
What is an Eukaryotic cell?
A
Are all other forms of life. Like plants, animals, humans etc. They also have a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles.
10
Q
What do Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells have in common?
A
They both use DNA as the information storage molecules
11
Q
What is a chromosome?
A
A structure found inside of a cell. Which contains one long strand of DNA with hundreds of thousands of genes.
12
Q
What is a gene?
A
The units of inheritance
13
Q
What is a double helix?
A
A DNA molecule
14
Q
What are nucleotides?
A
Chemical building blocks for DNA and RNA
15
Q
What are the 4 letters of a nucleotide?
A
A,T,C,G
16
Q
What does a protein do?
A
They are large, complex molecules that do most of the work in cells and are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body’s tissues and organs.
17
Q
What are the building blocks to make proteins?
A
Amino Acids
18
Q
What is a genome?
A
It is the entire “library” of genetic instructions that an organism inherits
19
Q
What is a proteome?
A
The complete set of proteins made by an organism.
20
Q
What are Producers?
A
They produce/ make energy (Ex: Plants that make their own food through. sunlight, air, and water)
21
Q
What are Consumers?
A
Organisms that depend on producers or other consumers (animals) for food/ energy
22
Q
What is the most common form of regulation in living organisms?
A
Negative feedback
23
Q
What is Negative feedback?
A
the product of a something leads to a decrease in that something.
24
Q
What is Feedback regulation?
A
Controls the amount in which you get back/out of. (more/less/the same amount)
25
What is positive feedback?
Where the end product speeds up it's own production
26
What is Diversity?
A difference between 2 species
27
What is Unity?
Having shared traits between 2 species
28
What are the 3 groups of life forms?
Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
29
What type of cells are in the Bacteria and Archaea groups/domains?
Single cells organisms
30
What 4 sub groups/kingdoms are in the Eukarya domain?
Plantae kingdom, fungi kingdom, animalia kingdom, protists
31
What is Natural selection?
the process through which populations of living organisms adapt and change.
32
What is Inductive reasoning?
a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion. (Specific observations lead to General conclusions)
33
What is Deductive reasoning?
a form of logical thinking that uses a general principle or law to forecast specific results (General theories lead to specific conclusions) Ex: Sherlock Holmes
34
What is a Hypothesis?
A testable explanation guided by inductive reasoning.
35
What is a Variable?
A factor that varies in an experiment.
36
What is an Independent variable?
a variable that stands alone and isn't changed by the other variables you are trying to measure
37
What is a Dependent variable?
something that depends on other factors. And is affected by other factors
38
What is a theory?
a carefully thought-out explanation using the scientific method,
39
What is a control variable?
the variable that is held constant or is controlled.
40
On a graph. how do you graph the Independent variables?
On the x-axis
41
On a graph. how to you graph the Dependent variables?
on the y-axis
42
What is the Placebo effect?
placebo is anything that seems to be a "real" but isn't. Making people think they are taking something when they really are taking something different. (Ex: drinking none caffeinated coffee and thinking it is caffeinated but it isn't)
43
What is Statistical significance?
confidence that our data is true
44
What is positive correlation?
Variables that go in the same direction (both increase on the x and y axis) (dots go up in a line)
45
What is negative correlation?
Variables that go in opposite directions(x axis increases and y axis decreases) (dots go down in a line)
46
What are the 7 characteristics of life?
1. Order, 2. Regulation/homeostasis, 3. Evolutionary adaption, 4. Energy processing, 5. Growth and Development, 6. Response to the environment, 7. Reproduction
47
How many characteristic does one thing need to be classified "alive"?
ALL 7
48
What is matter?
Anything that takes up space and has matter
49
What is mass?
The amount of matter an object contains (protons, neutrons, electrons)
50
What is a compound?
A substance consisting of two or more different elements
51
What is an Atom?
The smallest unit of matter that retains property of an element
52
What are atoms made up of?
Sub atomic particles (protons), (neutrons), (electrons)
53
What is a proton?
A subatomic particle with a single positive electrical charge, found in the nucleus of an atom
54
What is a Neutron?
A subatomic particle having no electrical charge (electrically neutral) found in the nucleus of an atom
55
What is an Electron?
A subatomic particle with a single negative electrical charge, One or more electrons move around the nucleus of an atom.
56
How much do protons, and neutrons weigh?
1 Dalton
57
How much does an electron weigh?
It's irrelevant (1/2000 Dalton)
58
What is the Dalton measurement?
The measurement for atoms and sub atomic particles
59
What is an atomic number?
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
60
How do we define atoms?
By the number of protons in an atom
61
How many protons and electrons are in a neutral charged atom?
The exact same amount
62
What is a mass number?
The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
63
How do you find out the amount of neutrons in an atom?
It's the Mass # minus the Atomic #
64
What is an atomic mass?
The amount of matter contained in an atom
65
What is an isotope?
An atom that has the same amount protons but different amounts of neutrons, which also differs in atomic mass
66
What does an isotope have a tendency of doing?
Losing sub atomic particles
67
What is a radioactive isotope?
An isotope that the nucleus decays randomly, giving off energy and particles
68
What is potential energy?
Stored energy that can be used to do work
69
What does matter have the natural tendency to do?
Move towards the lowest possible state of potential energy
70
What is an electron shell?
regions surrounding the atomic nucleus containing a specific number of electrons
71
What are the names of the 3 electron shells of an atom?
1st, 2nd, 3rd
72
Which shells electrons have to most potential energy (say from highest to lowest)?
3rd, 2nd, 1st
73
What happens if an electron absorbs energy?
It moves to a shell farther out from the nucleus
74
What determines the chemical behavior of an atom?
The amount of electrons distributed to the atoms shells
75
How many electrons can hang out in the 1st shell?
2
76
How many electrons can the 2nd shell of an atom hold?
8
77
What are valence electrons?
Electrons that hangout on the outermost shell
78
What is the valence shell?
The outermost shell
79
What happens if a valence shell is unreactive?
It will not react with other atoms
80
what are the 6 types of energy?
Thermal, chemical, electrical, mechanical, radiant, nuclear
81
What does tomos mean? And come from?
to cut, Latin
82
What does Atomos come from? And mean?
Latin, cannot cut
83
What is a Chemical bond?
An attraction between two atoms, resulting from a sharing of outer-shell electrons or the presence of opposite charges on the atoms. The bonded atoms gain complete outer electron shells.
84
What is a covalent bond?
A type of strong chemical bond in which two atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons.
85
What constitutes a molecule?
2 or more atoms held together by a covalent bond
86
What is a single bond?
A single covalent bond; the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms.
87
What is a double bond?
A double covalent bond; the sharing of two pairs of valence electrons by two atoms. (single bond times 2)
88
What is a valence?
The bonding capacity of a given atom; the number of covalent bonds that an atom can form
89
What is electronegativity?
what attracts the atoms to form a covalent bond
90
What is a nonpolar covalent bond?
A type of covalent bond in which electrons are shared equally between two atoms of similar electronegativity
91
What is a polar covalent bond?
when atoms with different electronegativities share electrons in a covalent bond.
92
Which atom is negative in a polar covalent bond?
The atom with the bigger electronegativity
93
Which atom is positive in a polar covalent bond?
The atom with the lesser electronegativity
94
What is an Ion?
an atom or group of atoms that has a positive or negative electric charge of + 1 or -1.
95
What is a Cation?
A positive charged Ion
96
What is an Anion?
A negative charged Ion
97
What is an Ionic bond?
A chemical bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged ions. (when a cation ion and an anion ion attract to each other)
98
What is the Van Der Waals interactions?
A weak force of attraction between electrically neutral molecules that collide with or pass very close to each other.
99
What is a Hydrogen bond?
A bond between 2 polar molecules (it's a weak bond)
100
What are molecules?
2 or more atoms held by covalent bonds
101
What are compound molecules?
made up of one or more different elements.
102
What is the difference between atoms if they are called by a different name?
The number of protons
103
What is the difference between atoms if they have the same name BUT have a different atomic numbers?
The number of neutrons
104
What is the difference between atoms that have different charges?
The number of electrons
105
How does carbon obtain a full valence shell?
By forming covalent bonds
106
What is a valence of an atom?
The number covalent bonds it can form
107
How many covalent bonds can an atom form?
Depends on the amount of electrons they are missing
108
What differences/forms can a carbon use to form a lot of molecules?
Length, Branching, Shape, Bonding with other atoms, Isomers, functional groups
109
What is saturated carbon?
Where carbons are covered/surrounded all the way around by another molecule/element (look at 01/25/23 notes for a picture)
110
What is unsaturated carbon?
Where the carbon isn't completely covered or surrounded. (there are gaps) (see notes 01/25/23 for a picture)
111
What are isomers?
They are made up of the same atoms. BUT have a different structure
112
What are the different Isomers?
Structural Isomers, Geometric Isomers (those have cis isomers, & Trans Isomers), & Enantiomers (those have L Isomer & D Isomer)
113
What is a structural isomer?
They have the same atoms/elements but their structure is different. (look at 01/25/23 for pic)
114
What is a geometric isomer?
Same atoms but are arranged differently in a double bond (look at 01/25/23 for pic)
115
What is a CIs isomer in a geometric isomer?
Atoms that are on the same side (look at 01/25/23 for pic)
116
What is Trans isomer in a geometric isomer?
Atoms are on the opposite side (look at 01/25/23 for pic)
117
What are Enantiomer?
Differ in spatial arrangement around an asymmetric carbon) results in mirror images (look at 01/25/23 for pic)
118
What is a L isomer in a Enantiomer?
The left mirror image of an Enantiomer (look at 01/25/23 for pic)
119
What is a D isomer in a Enantiomer?
The right mirror image of an Enantiomer (look at 01/25/23 for pic)
120
What are the functional groups and their symbols?
Hydroxyl (-OH), Methyl (CH3), Carbonyl (C=O), Carboxyl (R-COOH), Amino(N-H-H), Sulfhydryl (SH), Phosphate(-OPO)
121
What are acids
They are proton donors
122
What is an Ionized group?
Groups that are negative in charge that can form ionic bonds with a positive charged group
123
What is a macromolecule?
A giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules. Polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids are macromolecules.
124
What are some examples of macromolecuels?
Polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids
125
What is a polymer?
A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together by covalent bonds.
126
What is a monomer?
building block of a polymer
127
What is an enzyme?
a biological catalyst that speeds up the rate of a specific chemical reaction in the cell. The enzyme is not destroyed during the reaction. And is almost always a protein
128
What are most enzymes?
They are proteins
129
What is a condension reaction?
a reaction in which two molecules are covalently bonded to each other with the loss of a small molecule.
130
What is dehydration reaction?
A chemical reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule. (same thing as condensation reaction but lose a water molecule)
131
What is hydrolysis?
Adds a water molecule to a polymer chain which breaks a bond (between the polymer and monomer)
132
What is a glycosidic linkage?
Binds a sugar group (a carb) to another group
133
What must happen to Disaccharides or polysaccharides in order for cells to use them for energy?
get broken down to monosaccharides
134
What is a starch in a plant?
A storage polysaccharide in plants, joined by glycosidic linkages.
135
What is a glycogen?
An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.
136
What do organisms use to build strong materials?
structural polysaccharides
137
What is cellulose?
A structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls
138
What is chitin?
A structural polysaccharide, consisting of glucose monomers
139
What is a lipid?
Any of a group of large biological molecules that are hydrophobic.
140
What is fat?
A lipid consisting of three fatty acids
141
What is a fatty acid?
A carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain ( the building blocks of the fat in our bodies and in the food we eat.)
142
What reaction is used to bind fats and fatty acids?
Dehydration reactions
143
What are saturated fatty acids?
A fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds
144
What are unsaturated fatty acids?
A fatty acid that has one or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon tail.
145
What are trans fats?
An unsaturated fat, formed during hydrogenation of oils, containing one or more trans double bonds.
146
What is the major function of fats?
energy storage
147
What is a phospholipid?
a fat molecule but has only two fatty acids attached to rather than three.
148
What is a steroid?
A type of lipid consisting of four fused rings with various chemical groups attached.
149
What is cholesterol?
A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes
150
What are polypeptides made out of?
many amino acids
151
What are peptide bonds?
The bond between 2 amino acids
152
What groups are amino acids made of?
they are made of a carboxyl group and an amino group.
153
Amino acids are monomers for what polymer?
Polypeptides
154
What type of bond is used for amino acids?
By dehydration bonds
155
What is the primary structure in a protein?
the sequence of amino acids linked together to form a polypeptide chain.
156
What is the secondary structure in a protein?
Folded or coiled polypeptides
157
What is the tertiary structure in a protein?
the overall three-dimensional arrangement of its polypeptide chain
158
What is the quaternary structure in a protein?
when two or more polypeptide chains join together
159
What is denaturation?
In proteins, a process in which a protein loses its native shape due to the disruption of weak chemical bonds and interactions
160
What are nucleic acids mad of?
nucleotides.
161
How do nucleic acids benefit proteins?
They carry their genetic info (their blueprint)
162
What are the 2 types of nucleic acids?
DNA & RNA
163
What are the 3 parts of a nucleotide?
a purine or a pyrimidine, deoxyribose or ribose, and a phosphate group
164
What is a pyrimidine?
has one six-membered ring of cytosine, thymine, and uracil
165
What elements does pyrimidine have?
Cytosine (C), Thymine (T), Uracil (U)
166
What are purines?
a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring
167
What DNA bases do purines have?
Adenine (A), Guanine (G)
168
What is the function for the hydroxyl group?
It is polar
169
What is the function for the Methyl group?
Non-polar
170
What is the function for the carbonyl group?
It is polar
171
What is the function for the carboxyl group?
It is acid
172
What is the function for the amino group?
It is a base
173
What is the function for the phosphate group?
Acid
174
What is the function for the Sulfhydryl group?
non-polar
175
How can you determine the valence of an electron?
the number of unpaired electrons in its outermost (valence) shell.
176
How many electrons can be on the outermost valence shell?
8
177
Draw the hydroxyl group
DRAW ON PAPER
178
Draw the methyl group
DRAW ON PAPER
179
Draw the carbonyl group
DRAW ON PAPER
180
Draw the carboxyl group
DRAW ON PAPER
181
Draw the amino group
DRAW ON PAPER
182
Draw the phosphate group
DRAW ON PAPER
183
Draw the sulfhydryl group
DRAW ON PAPER
184
What are the 7 simple sugars called?
monosaccharides, disaccharides, triose, tetrose, pentose, hexose, heptose
185
How many carbons, hydrogens, and oxygens does triose have?
C = 3, H= 6, O = 3
186
How many carbons, hydrogens, and oxygens does tetrose have?
C = 4, H= 8, O = 4
187
How many carbons, hydrogens, and oxygens does pentose have?
C = 5, H= 10, O = 5
188
How many carbons, hydrogens, and oxygens does hexose have?
C = 6, H= 12, O = 6
189
How many carbons, hydrogens, and oxygens does heptose have?
C = 7, H= 14, O = 7
190
What do the points mean in a ring form (that aren't marked with other elements)?
they are carbons or another element of the molecule
191
What is a glycosidic linkage?
Linkage that joins 2 monosaccharides together
192
What is the role of a disaccharide?
Energy source of plants
193
What are the roles of polysaccharides?
Storage and structure
194
What linkage holds two storage polysaccharides together?
glycosidic linkage
195
What linkage holds two polysaccharides together?
glycosidic linkage
196
What are the types of storage polysaccharides?
Amylose, Amylopectin, starches, glycogen
197
Whare are amyloses?
Unbranched polymers (a straight chain/line), 20% of plant starch, insoluble in water, forms gel when heated
198
What are amylopectin?
Branched polymers (branches every 20-30 units), (80% of plant starch), soluble in water, easily digested
199
What are starches?
a substance produced by plants, stored in amyloplasts, hydrolyzed to monomers when energy is needed
200
What are glycogen?
Extensively branched polymer (branches every 8-10 units), Produced by animals , Stored in the liver and in muscle cells, hydrolyzed to monomers when energy is needed, Easy to digest, Provides immediate energy
201
What is the role of structural polysaccharides?
To form structures that protect the cell or organism (usually in a straight line)
202
What are the types of structural polysaccharides?
Chitin, Cellulose
203
What are chitins?
A straight line structural polysaccharide that has an extra extension.
204
What are chitins used for?
Insects
205
What are proteins?
Straight line of amino acids chains formed by peptide linkage
206
What links proteins together?
Peptide linkage
207
How does an amino acid look? (describe it) Where is the main chain, and which groups are on which side?
Main chain N-C-C, amino acid group on the left side, and an acidic (carboxyl) group on the right side, and the side group is on top
208
What are the 4 side chains?
polar, non-polar, acidic, basic
209
What determines if a side chain is non-polar?
(made up of mostly carbons & hydrogens)
210
What determines if a side chain is polar?
(made up of mostly oxygens & hydrogens)
211
What determines if a side chain is acidic?
(made up of mostly carbons, oxygens & hydrogens)
212
What determines if a side chain is basic?
(made up of mostly nitrogen)
213
when the molecules/atoms are on the bottom of a ring. What linkage is that?
Alpha linkage
214
when the molecules/atoms are on the top of a ring. What linkage is that?
Beta linkage
215
What groups of molecules use dehydration reaction?
Carbs, proteins, nucleic acids, amino acids
216
what is the amino terminus? and what is the abbreviation for it?
The far left end of an amino acid, and the N-terminus
217
What is the carboxy terminus? and what is the abbreviation for it?
The far right end of an amino acid, and the C-terminus
218
How does an amino acid grow?
from left to right N-terminus to C-terminus
219
How are new amino acids added?
They are added to the C-terminus
220
What are the 8 roles of proteins?
enzymatic, storage, hormonal, contractile/motor, defensive, transport, receptor, structural
221
What do Enzymatic proteins do?
A catalyst that speeds up the reaction process
222
What do storage proteins do?
Storage of amino acids
223
What do hormonal proteins do?
Coordination/Regulation of an organisms activities
224
What do contractile/motor proteins do?
Movement of the body
225
What do defensive proteins do?
Protect against diseases
226
What do transport proteins do?
Transport of substances in our body
227
What do receptor proteins do?
Communication with other cells
228
What do structural proteins do?
Support/structure of cells
229
What makes proteins different from others?
The side chains of amino acids
230
what are Nucleic acids made of? And what linkage links them together?
nucleotides joined by phosphodiester linkage
231
What is at the core of every nucleotide?
a sugar molecule (pentose)
232
What are the nitrogen bases used in a nucleotide?
A,T,G,C
233
How many OH does deoxyribose & ribose have?
deoxyribose- 1, ribose- 2
234
What is phosphodiester linkage?
Linkage between nucleic acids
235
Where does phosphodiester linkage link to?
prime carbon #3 and prime carbon#5
236
What do you do to differentiate the numbering of one nucleic acid molecule from the other?
You use prime numbering
237
How do you number the molecules in a nucleic acid? And what elements should we only count?
Start with the far right molecule and the top right element. Start your counting with 1 then go around clockwise (right to left) of that molecule until every point is numbered. Then go to the next molecule to the left and do the exact same thing. (only count carbons and hydrogens or the points)
238
Where are new bases added in a nucleic acid?
always are added to the #3 prime
239
How do nucleic acids grow? (use the prime #'s)
from #5 prime to #3 prime
240
What nitrogen bases form to each other?
A to T, C to G, U to A
241
How many hydrogen bonds form when A forms to T?
2
242
How many hydrogen bonds form when C forms to G?
3
243
What are the bases of RNA?
A, U, G, C
244
What are the bases of DNA?
A, G, T, C
245
What is RNA?
A single strand able to base pair within itself and can form unique shapes
246
What is the role of mRNA?
Carries code for proteins
247
What is the role of rRNA and other types of RNAs?
Structural
248
What is the sequence in which we get proteins?
DNA is TRANSCRIBED to mRNA then mRNA is TRANSLATED to an amino acid chain and then the amino acid chain FOLDS in proteins
249
What are lipids?
Large molecules that ARE NOT macromolecules and are hydrophobic
250
What do lipids consist of?
Consist of non-polar hydrocarbons
251
What are the 3 types of lipids?
Triacylglycerol (fat), Phospholipids, Steroid hormones
252
What is the differences between saturated fats and unsaturated fats?
Saturated fats have single bonds between carbons, and are solid in room temperature.
Unsaturated fats have double bonds between carbons, and are liquid at room temperature
253
What do phospholipids consist of?
glycerol and 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group
254
What is polar in phospholipid? And what makes it polar?
The head of a phospholipid is polar. Alcohol modifiers make it polar
255
What reaction happens when a fatty acid and a glycerol are joined together?
A dehydration reaction
256
What are the roles of a triacylglycerol?
Energy storage, insulation, cushioning vital organs
257
What are the roles of a phospholipid?
Major constituent of cell membranes
258
What are the roles of steroid hormones?
Growth
Development
Energy metabolism
Homeostasis
reproduction
259
What links nucleic acids together?
phosphodiester linkage
260
How do nucleic acids grow?
From prime #5 to prime #3
