Biology FINAL Flashcards
1
Q
What are the organelles in the plastids family?
A
Chloroplasts, chromoplasts, amyloplasts, elaioplasts, proteinsoplasts
2
Q
What do genes code for?
A
ALWAYS for RNA and sometimes for proteins
3
Q
How many hydrogen bonds form when C forms to G?
A
3
4
Q
How does DNA replication work?
A
At the beginning the DNA forms replication forks and replication bubbles. Inside the bubbles they form the semi conserved strands. (the DNA strands that are replicating the DNA). And it ALWAYS replicates from 5 prime to 3 prime (the top strand on the inside goes to the right and the bottom goes to the left).
5
Q
What happens to the cell membrane when it is cold?
A
Molecular motion slows down, and the membrane begins to solidify
6
Q
What is the structure of the smooth ER?
A
Tube like membrane structure
7
Q
On a graph. how to you graph the Dependent variables?
A
on the y-axis
8
Q
What is the photosystem and what does it do?
A
Basically it depends on light. Light hits photosystem 2 which excite the electrons and moves them through the electron transport chain to photosystem 1. As it is going through the electron transport chain hydrogens go through the membrane and chill there. Then when the electrons are in photosystem 1 they wait for light to hit photosystem 1 then they go through the electron transport chain and are picked up by nadp + which turns into nadph and are taken to the Calvin cycle.
9
Q
What is saturated carbon?
A
Where carbons are covered/surrounded all the way around by another molecule/element (look at 01/25/23 notes for a picture)
10
Q
What effects the cell membrane from being at hemeoviscosity?
A
Temperature
11
Q
What is the primary structure in a protein?
A
the sequence of amino acids linked together to form a polypeptide chain.
12
Q
What 4 sub groups/kingdoms are in the Eukarya domain?
A
Plantae kingdom, fungi kingdom, animalia kingdom, protists
13
Q
What happens when inactivation occurs in the embryotic cells? And what are the names of the X chromosomes?
A
Active Maternal X
Active Paternal X
Half express one allele and the other half express another (one is active for a specific trait and one is not and vice versa)
14
Q
What is mass?
A
The amount of matter an object contains (protons, neutrons, electrons)
15
Q
What is reduction?
A
the gaining of electrons
16
Q
What are some examples of chemoautotrophs?
A
Organisms in the deep blue sea
17
Q
What is a CIs isomer in a geometric isomer?
A
Atoms that are on the same side (look at 01/25/23 for pic)
18
Q
How do you number the molecules in a nucleic acid? And what elements should we only count?
A
Start with the far right molecule and the top right element. Start your counting with 1 then go around clockwise (right to left) of that molecule until every point is numbered. Then go to the next molecule to the left and do the exact same thing. (only count carbons and hydrogens or the points)
19
Q
Where are new bases added in a nucleic acid?
A
always are added to the #3 prime
20
Q
What part of the amino acid forms the alpha helix?
A
The back bone of the amino acid (N-C-C)
21
Q
What is unsaturated carbon?
A
Where the carbon isn’t completely covered or surrounded. (there are gaps) (see notes 01/25/23 for a picture)
22
Q
What was the study that Nettie Stevens conducted?
A
Studied meal worms. And found out that there were 2 chromosomes that varied by gender. Male = XY & Female = XX.
23
Q
What is a valence of an atom?
A
The number covalent bonds it can form
24
Q
What does glycolysis start off with?
A
glucose
25
What is a monomer?
building block of a polymer
26
Where are chloroplasts found in?
Algae & plants
27
What happens when the proteins/phospholipids are done being modified in the Golgi apparatus?
All the same proteins/phospholipids that are going to the same place are put into the same transport vesicle and are shipped off
28
How does cell division happen in bacteria?
Chromosome replication begins at the origin of replication
Then they go around in a circle
Origins of each new chromosome anchor to the cell membrane at opposite sides
Cell growth pulls chromosomes to opposite sides
Cell divides
29
What is the haplo-diploid system?
Sex is determined by ploidy (number of chromosomes an organism has)
Males: haploid (unfertilized eggs)
Females: diploid (fertilized eggs)
30
What is the initiation in DNA transcription in & Eukaryotic cells?
The RNA polymerase cannot recognize the start point so it needs the transcription factors to lasso it into the start point then it turns it on by adding a phosphate then finally RNA polymerase can start the copying of the template strand
31
STUDY THE PICTURES IN THE PICTURE TAB
DO THE PRACTICE QUIZES ON THE LINKS
32
What is denaturation?
In proteins, a process in which a protein loses its native shape due to the disruption of weak chemical bonds and interactions
33
What are the reduced forms in each scenario?
Fe=+2 VS Fe +
NH3 VS N2
CH4 vs CO2
Fe+, NH3, CH4
34
What type of reactions are NAD used for?
Catabolic reactions (cellular respiration)
35
What is the corepressor in the lac operon?
Lactose
36
What molecule does DNA polymerase add to the growing strand in DNA replication?
Deoxyribose
37
What are the functions of chloroplasts?
Photosynthesis, ATP synthesis, sugar synthesis
38
How many carbons, hydrogens, and oxygens does tetrose have?
C = 4, H= 8, O = 4
39
What does the electron transport chain start with to start the process?
NADH, FADH2
40
When simple and facilitated diffusion is happening, what are they trying to accomplish?
equilibrium (equal concentration on both sides) (equal amount of molecules on each side)
41
What are the names of the 3 electron shells of an atom?
1st, 2nd, 3rd
42
What is RNA splicing?
Where two mRNAs are made.
43
What do lipids consist of?
Consist of non-polar hydrocarbons
44
Why is glycogen so highly branched?
To make it easier to digest for a rapid release of energy
45
What happens to a hypotonic cell during osmosis?
Water rushes into the cell and makes it burst
46
What is osmosis?
The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
47
What are the roles of steroid hormones?
Growth
Development
Energy metabolism
Homeostasis
reproduction
48
What is a D isomer in a Enantiomer?
The right mirror image of an Enantiomer (look at 01/25/23 for pic)
49
What is the template strand?
Is the bottom strand of DNA and is the strand that RNA polymerase reads
50
What are the products of glycolysis?
pyruvates (2), ATP (4), NADH (2)
51
What are proteins?
Straight line of amino acids chains formed by peptide linkage
52
What conditions cause the lac operon to be repressed?
When there is no lactose present
53
Why is anaerobic respiration less effective than cellular respiration?
because they end up producing less protons and fewer ATP is produced
54
What are the outputs of the electron transport chain?
NAD+
FAD
H2O
Proton gradient
3-4 H+ (hydrogen ions
ATP
55
What does the central vacuole do?
stores ions K (potassium) and CI (chlorine), and absorbs water in the plant
56
What are the 2 different regions in the endoplasmic reticulum?
Smooth ER & Rough ER
57
What happens in meiosis 2 stage?
sister chromatids separate into 4 different cells, It goes through the same steps as mitosis and meiosis stage 1 ((prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis)
58
What linkage holds two storage polysaccharides together?
glycosidic linkage
59
What are the 3 major check points in the cell cycle?
G1, G2, M
60
What is cooperation in an enzyme?
It is where a substrate binds to one of the active sites in an enzyme and puts all the other active sites in their active form. (basically make all of the other active sites the same)
61
What do you do to differentiate the numbering of one nucleic acid molecule from the other?
You use prime numbering
62
What are the 3 differences between reduction and oxidation?
Look for a change in the charge
Look for a change in the number of hydrogens
Look for a change in the number of oxygens
63
What is the XO: turners syndrome? And some characteristics?
The lack of the Y chromosome
Female characteristics
Short in height
64
How does osmosis work?
The water molecules move to the side that has the higher solute concentration
65
What is the Placebo effect?
placebo is anything that seems to be a "real" but isn't. Making people think they are taking something when they really are taking something different. (Ex: drinking none caffeinated coffee and thinking it is caffeinated but it isn't)
66
What type of cells are in the Bacteria and Archaea groups/domains?
Single cells organisms
67
What are the two ways that energy can be transferred?
1. they jump down to the end and bind to the oxygen and explode
2. they move step by step and release little bit of energy at a time (cellular respiration)
68
How can we see the color green?
Because the molecules absorb all of the other colors in ROYGBIV and reflect the color green so we can see that color
69
What is the function cell to cell recognition in membrane proteins?
when two molecules restricted to the plasma membranes of different cells bind to each other. triggering a response for communication, cooperation, transport, defense, and/or growth.
70
What are lipids?
Large molecules that ARE NOT macromolecules and are hydrophobic
71
How many electrons can be on the outermost valence shell?
8
72
How many carbons, hydrogens, and oxygens does hexose have?
C = 6, H= 12, O = 6
73
What is a L isomer in a Enantiomer?
The left mirror image of an Enantiomer (look at 01/25/23 for pic)
74
What are silent mutations?
Change in a nucleotide that does not change the amino acid (doesn't have an effect on the end product of the protein)
75
What determines how much energy is in a specific type of light?
The wavelengths in the light
76
How do antioxidants help us prevent cancer?
They donate extra electrons to stabilize free radicals
77
What are the roles of the smooth ER?
Lipid synthesis, Detoxification, calcium storage, glycogen metabolism
78
What is a theory?
a carefully thought-out explanation using the scientific method,
79
What type of light is the main contributor in photosynthesis?
Visible light
80
What is Evolution?
a process of biological change in which species accumulate differences from their ancestors as they adapt to different environments over time.
81
What is transport work?
moving molecules across a membrane
82
What groups tighten chromatin and what groups loosen them?
Acetylation group = loosens chromatin
Phosphorylation group = loosens chromatin
Methylation group = condenses chromatin
83
How do you measure wavelengths?
From peak to peak or from troph to troph. (top to top or bottom to bottom)
84
What is activation energy in enzyme activity?
The amount of energy needed to overcome the energy barrier that leads to the next lower stable state
85
What is positive correlation?
Variables that go in the same direction (both increase on the x and y axis) (dots go up in a line)
86
What are operons in transcription regulation?
2 or more genes whose products function in a common pathway that are controlled by a single promoter and operator
87
What is the function of a competitive inhibitor?
They fight the substrate to the active site and turn off the enzyme
88
What type of chromosomes do females and males pass down to their offspring?
Females only the X chromosome
Males the X and Y chromosome
89
What is tubulin made out of?
Alpha tubulin & beta tubulin
90
On a graph. how do you graph the Independent variables?
On the x-axis
91
Explain the negative gene regulation in the trp operon
It's the normal way like you just explained bc you're so smart haha
92
What is hydrolysis?
ATP that is released in water
93
What is the function of an allosteric reaction?
They bind to the regulatory site of an enzyme and they turn on the enzyme and help with its function that it needs to perform
94
What is the Van Der Waals interactions?
A weak force of attraction between electrically neutral molecules that collide with or pass very close to each other.
95
What is the role of structural polysaccharides?
To form structures that protect the cell or organism (usually in a straight line)
96
What are the 3 alleles in humans (blood types)?
Ia (for blood type A)
Ib (for blood type B)
I (for blood type O)
97
What are photoheterotrophs?
Organisms that get their energy from light and their inorganic carbon from eating other things
98
What is an Atom?
The smallest unit of matter that retains property of an element
99
What is the S phase? And what happens to the cells in that are in this phase?
DNA replication happens
Typical time 10-12 hours
100
What are nucleic acids mad of?
nucleotides.
101
What is the metaphase in mitosis?
Chromosomes align in the center
Sister chromatids attached to the microtubules on opposite sides/poles
102
what are the 6 types of energy?
Thermal, chemical, electrical, mechanical, radiant, nuclear
103
What are free radicals?
They are unpaired electrons in the outer shell that are highly reactive and cause damages to lipids, proteins, DNA etc.
104
What are membrane proteins?
Proteins that are embedded into the membrane that are amphipathic and have different functions
105
What are sister chromatids?
opposite chromosomes and attract to each other
106
How many protons and electrons are in a neutral charged atom?
The exact same amount
107
What is longevity of proteins in protein processing?
adding of ubiquitin to a protein and destroys it
108
How can chemiosmosis function? (what energy is used to do chemiosmosis?)
potential energy is used to do the work
109
What provides the activation energy that is needed to overcome the energy barrier?
Enzymes
110
What is a fatty acid?
A carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain ( the building blocks of the fat in our bodies and in the food we eat.)
111
What are some examples of mechanical work?
Contraction of muscles
112
When will the cell de-repress the lac operon?
When lactose is present
113
What does the double membrane consist of in a nucleus?
Outer & inner membrane, nuclear pores, nuclear lamina, and the rough endoplasmic reticulum
114
What is a nucleoid?
A non membraned enclosed nucleus found in prokaryotic cells
115
What do phospholipids form?
they form a lipid bilayer, and are amphipathic
116
What are point mutations?
A single nucleotide base changes in DNA sequence but does not ruin the rest of the bases in the line
117
What is the function of non-coding RNAs?
Bind to the mRNA
They block translation
Degradation (destroys) of target DNA
118
What are chitins?
A straight line structural polysaccharide that has an extra extension.
119
What is the initiation of translation?
Where ribosomes bind to the start codon on mRNA and does it's translation process
120
What is a Dependent variable?
something that depends on other factors. And is affected by other factors
121
What are endogenic reactions?
Need energy to get a product, are more stable, and have a lower capacity to do work
122
What is a gene?
The units of inheritance
123
What is a radioactive isotope?
An isotope that the nucleus decays randomly, giving off energy and particles
124
What is the function for the hydroxyl group?
It is polar
125
What are microtubules made out of?
alpha and beta Tubulin
126
What are the 3 types of lipids?
Triacylglycerol (fat), Phospholipids, Steroid hormones
127
What does the nucleus contain?
Contains the genome (the genes) of the eukaryotic cells
128
What is the promotor in DNA transcription in bacterial & eukaryotic cells?
It marks the beginning of a gene so RNA polymerase can come and start the process
129
What was the study that Erwin Chargaff conducted?
He studied the bases of DNA. And that A=T & G=C. and that DNA is not uniform and different living organisms can have different amounts of bases in their DNA. (example humans have less of the DNA base A than a sea urchin).
130
What is a geometric isomer?
Same atoms but are arranged differently in a double bond (look at 01/25/23 for pic)
131
What do lysosomes have inside of them?
Digestive enzymes
132
What is the active site?
The place where substrates bind to the enzyme
133
What is the function of transport in membrane proteins?
Transporting a molecules from the outside of the membrane into the inside of the membrane and vise versa
134
What is aneuploidy?
Abnormal number of chromosomes
135
What are enzyme cofactors?
Any non-protein molecule or ion that is required for the proper functioning of the enzyme
136
What are Lipid-anchored membrane proteins?
They are membrane proteins in which the lipids anchor them to the outside of the membrane
137
What groups are amino acids made of?
they are made of a carboxyl group and an amino group.
138
What is the G2 stage? And what happens to the cells that are in this stage?
Cell growth
Makes all materials needed for cell division (phospholipids, microtubules, proteins, enzymes
Typical time 4-6 hours
139
What are purines?
a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring
140
What is the state of the trp operon when the corepressor binds to the repressor?
Inactive
141
What is the Rough endoplasmic reticulum?
an extension of the nuclear membrane with different functions
142
Why do we have differential genes?
Allows cells to respond to changes in the environment
Allows cells to differentiate
143
What does Eu stand for?
True
144
How does substrate concentration affect enzyme activity?
Increasing substrate increases enzyme activity to a certain point until all the enzymes are bound to a substrate.
Decreasing substrate decreases enzyme activity
145
What do the points mean in a ring form (that aren't marked with other elements)?
they are carbons or another element of the molecule
146
What are the roles of microtubules?
Hold organelles in proper position, chromosomal separation during cell division (make sure each cell gets a chromosome) , cell movement (move the flagella and cilia)
147
What is feedback inhibition in an enzyme?
It is where the product of the enzyme acts as an inhibitor and goes back into the same enzyme and helps to control it (either turns it on or turns it off)
148
What are intermediate filaments?
structural support of proteins
149
free card
free card
150
What is the default state of the trp repressor?
Inactive
151
How much does an electron weigh?
It's irrelevant (1/2000 Dalton)
152
What kind of wavelengths have more energy?
The shorter or more compact the wavelength is the more energy it has
153
What does isotonic mean?
That the solute concentration is the same on the inside and outside of a cell
154
How do enzymes work?
Enzymes work by lowering the activation energy required
Enzymes speed up the reaction by lowering the activation energy
155
What is the difference between atoms that have different charges?
The number of electrons
156
What is the function for the hydroxyl group?
polar
157
What are carcinogens?
Form free radicals and cause cancer
158
What are some examples of photoautotrophs?
Plants, algae
159
What are the 2 types of cells?
Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic
160
What is RNA?
A single strand able to base pair within itself and can form unique shapes
161
Draw the hydroxyl group
DRAW ON PAPER
162
What does pro stand for?
before
163
How many OH does deoxyribose & ribose have?
deoxyribose- 1, ribose- 2
164
What is the enzyme called in chemiosmosis?
ATP synthase
165
What is metabolism?
The total of all an organisms' chemical reactions
166
What do enzymes bind to?
To substrates
167
What was the study that scientists in the 1940s conducted?
They found out that chromosomes are made of both DNA and proteins. And that DNA consists of 4 bases and that proteins had 22 amino acids. And said DNA was too basic to make a code of a living organism.
168
What does hypotonic mean?
That the solute concentration is higher on the inside of the cell and lower on the outside of a cell
169
What are the 5 themes of biology?
1. Evolution, 2. Organization, 3. Information, 4. Interactions, 5. Energy matter
170
What was the study that George Beadle and Edward Tatum perform?
They exposed bread mold to X- rays. And each enzyme lacked a different enzyme. It supported the one gene = one enzyme hypothesis.
171
What is negative correlation?
Variables that go in opposite directions(x axis increases and y axis decreases) (dots go down in a line)
172
What is the state of the lac operon when the corepressor binds to the repressor?
Active
173
What does the N, 2n, and 4n symbols mean?
N is the symbol for haploid, 2n is the symbol of diploid, 4n is the symbol of tetraploid
174
What do plants use pigments for?
To absorb light
175
What is fermentation and it's steps?
A different way of getting energy, the do glycolysis but do not have an electron transport chain. So to get NAD+ back to NADH they dump/give their electrons to the pyruvate molecules.
176
What links proteins together?
Peptide linkage
177
What does IC stand for?
Pertaining to
178
How many carbons, hydrogens, and oxygens does heptose have?
C = 7, H= 14, O = 7
179
What is the function for the phosphate group?
Acid
180
What introns?
They are a sequence in RNA that are cut out. They are non coding regions, and have potential to be codons.
181
What is catalysis?
Converting the substrate to the product in the enzyme
182
Explain the positive gene regulation in lac operon.
When the glucose levels are low in the lac operon, cAMP binds to the inactive CRP then activates the CRP and the lac operon will be turned on
183
What is a single bond?
A single covalent bond; the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms.
184
What are amylopectin?
Branched polymers (branches every 20-30 units), (80% of plant starch), soluble in water, easily digested
185
What is equilibrium?
A state of physical balance
186
What is the function for the carboxyl group?
It is acid
187
How much ATP is gained in fermentation?
2 ATP
188
What is the function signal transduction in membrane proteins?
A message is received from outside of the membrane and then it is told to the cells inside of the membrane to do that certain thing (like a telephone)
189
What is cellulose?
A structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls
190
What does the G stand for in the cell cycle?
Gap
191
What is glycogen metabolism?
Glycogen that is stored in the smooth ER and is broken down when energy is needed
192
How many carbons, hydrogens, and oxygens does pentose have?
C = 5, H= 10, O = 5
193
What does Atomos come from? And mean?
Latin, cannot cut
194
Draw the functional groups
Draw on paper
195
How much does a molecule have to weigh in order to cross the membrane with no help?
Has to be under 180 Daltons
196
What are the 2 faces of the Golgi apparatus?
Cis and trans face
197
What are the different Isomers?
Structural Isomers, Geometric Isomers (those have cis isomers, & Trans Isomers), & Enantiomers (those have L Isomer & D Isomer)
198
What are the bases of RNA?
A, U, G, C
199
Draw the carboxyl group
DRAW ON PAPER
200
What is the function for the amino group?
It is a base
201
What are the steps of the pyruvate process?
CO2 is cut off from the pyruvate, electrons are stripped and taken by NAD+ which turns into NADH, Coenzyme A attaches to from acetyl CoA
202
How does carbon obtain a full valence shell?
By forming covalent bonds
203
Where does phosphodiester linkage link to?
prime carbon #3 and prime carbon#5
204
What happens in the payoff stage in glycolysis?
Produces 4 ATP's but only get a net gain of 2 ATPs, and get the molecule pyruvate
205
What are insertion mutations?
adds one or more bases to a group of 3 bases and changes the rest of the bases along the line
206
Where are central vacuoles found?
In plants
207
How many ATPs does cellular respiration often times produce?
32 ATPs
208
What is thermal energy?
Anything to do with heat
209
What are trans fats?
An unsaturated fat, formed during hydrogenation of oils, containing one or more trans double bonds.
210
What is the function of Helicase in DNA replication?
Opens up the template for DNA replications (the unzipper)
211
What does a cell need to be characterized as a cell?
ALL 7 characteristics of life
212
What is a condension reaction?
a reaction in which two molecules are covalently bonded to each other with the loss of a small molecule.
213
What do defensive proteins do?
Protect against diseases
214
Draw the amino group
DRAW ON PAPER
215
What is the carboxy terminus? and what is the abbreviation for it?
The far right end of an amino acid, and the C-terminus
216
What differences/forms can a carbon use to form a lot of molecules?
Length, Branching, Shape, Bonding with other atoms, Isomers, functional groups
217
What is the function enzymatic activity in membrane proteins?
To transform a molecule into another form
218
How does the PH levels affect enzyme activity?
PH levels need to be at the optimal level for the enzyme to be at it's most effective point. If the PH levels are above or below the optimal level then the enzyme activity decreases.
219
What linkage holds two polysaccharides together?
glycosidic linkage
220
What is Diversity?
A difference between 2 species
221
What DNA bases do purines have?
Adenine (A), Guanine (G)
222
What are some examples of non-coding RNAs?
MicroRNAs (miRNA)
Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs)
223
What is polar in phospholipid? And what makes it polar?
The head of a phospholipid is polar. Alcohol modifiers make it polar
224
Organisms that live in a hot spring, what DNA bases are they most likely to favor in their DNA?
G & C because they have 3 bonds instead of A & T which has 2 bonds
225
What kind of system are cells apart of and why?
Open system, because they must have a steady supply of nutrients, must have the ability to expel waste products, must have the ability to store and transfer energy
226
Which atom is negative in a polar covalent bond?
The atom with the bigger electronegativity
227
What other molecules are used as the electron acceptor in anaerobic respiration?
Sulfate and nitrate
228
What is the transition state in enzyme activity?
Input of activation energy
229
What are specialized transcription factors?
They enhance the activity of the gene or silence it, they do not bind to the promoter. Either bind before the promoter or after the promoter
230
What is the role of Coenzyme A in pyruvate oxidation?
To make the molecule more reactive so it can interact with other molecules
231
What are the exons and introns in the transcript A mRNA and transcript B mRNA? (look at pic in your phone)
Transcript A
Exon 3 = Exon
Exon 4 = Intron
Transcript B
Exon 3 = Intron
Exon 4 = Exon
232
What are linked genes?
Close genes that are inherited together during crossing over
233
What are exons?
They are a sequence in RNA that are not cut out and are coding regions. They code for a specific domain
234
What are some of the various proteins that intermediate filaments are made of?
Keratin, and Lamins
235
What is a Neutron?
A subatomic particle having no electrical charge (electrically neutral) found in the nucleus of an atom
236
What is homeoviscosity?
The membrane is at the perfect flexibility to function properly
237
What functions do peroxisomes perform?
Oxidation reactions, detoxification of alcohol and other poisons, breaks down fatty acids for energy, uses catalase to dispose of hydrogen peroxide, Produces hydrogen peroxide as a by-product
238
What is energy?
The ability to do work
239
How is equilibrium achieved?
It is achieved in a closed system environment
240
What happens in the meiosis 1?
Chromosomes separate into 2 different cells. It goes through the same steps as mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis)
241
What is a Hypothesis?
A testable explanation guided by inductive reasoning.
242
What do structural proteins do?
Support/structure of cells
243
What is the function for the phosphate group?
acid
244
What is a control variable?
the variable that is held constant or is controlled.
245
What are Producers?
They produce/ make energy (Ex: Plants that make their own food through. sunlight, air, and water)
246
What is the initiation in DNA transcription in bacterial cells?
Where RNA polymerase starts off by unwinding the DNA and starts the process
247
What are the roles of a phospholipid?
Major constituent of cell membranes
248
what is the amino terminus? and what is the abbreviation for it?
The far left end of an amino acid, and the N-terminus
249
What does the citric acid cycle start with to begin it's process?
Acetyl CoA
250
What is the Golgi apparatus?
Stacked flatten membrane sacs that package and ship out proteins received from the transfer vesicles
251
What is fat?
A lipid consisting of three fatty acids
252
What is intracellular? And is it polar or non-polar?
It is the water that is inside of the cell/inside of the membrane and it is polar
253
What is a double bond?
A double covalent bond; the sharing of two pairs of valence electrons by two atoms. (single bond times 2)
254
What is the M stage? And what happens to the cells that are in this stage?
Where mitosis and cytokinesis take place
255
What is matter?
Anything that takes up space and has matter
256
What is a mass number?
The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
257
What is amoeboid motion?
A crawling-like type of movement that microfilaments use
258
What energy does molecular motors use to do their functions?
They use ATP
259
What did Payton Rous do a study on in 1911?
Studied chickens and their tumors
260
What is a glycosidic linkage?
Linkage that joins 2 monosaccharides together
261
What is the function for the carbonyl group?
It is polar
262
What happens in gene regulation and chromatin?
Tightly packed means genes are hidden and not available (Heterochromatin) and loosely packed means genes are not hidden and available (Euchromatin)
263
What are the functions of these membrane proteins? (integral, peripheral, lipid-anchored, multi-pass, single-pass, monotopic)
enzymatic activity, transport, signal transduction, cell to cell recognition, intercellular joining, attachment
264
What reaction happens when a fatty acid and a glycerol are joined together?
A dehydration reaction
265
What do contractile/motor proteins do?
Movement of the body
266
What is the function of NADH+ and FAD?
to carry electrons to the electron transport chain
267
How do we go from diploid cells to haploid gametes?
meiosis
268
What is altered activity with alleles?
Adds sugars to the H-antigen to our red blood cells (glycosyl-transferase)
269
What is an Ionized group?
Groups that are negative in charge that can form ionic bonds with a positive charged group
270
Draw the carbonyl group
DRAW ON PAPER
271
What was the study that Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase conducted?
They studied the virus bacteriophage T2. Fond out that it only consists of DNA and protein. And that DNA in the virus only goes into the bacterial cell.
272
What are the functions of Elaioplasts?
Storage of fatty acids & terpenes
273
What are the functions of amyloplasts?
Starch storage
274
What happens during cytokinesis?
Cleavage furrow constricts
Cell divides
Cells separate
275
What are most enzymes?
They are proteins
276
How do we get different eye colors?
Alleles produce more melanin than others and that is how you get eye color
277
What is the alpha helix? And is it polar or non-polar?
It is the back bone of an amino acid (N-C-C) and it is non-polar
278
What do cells need energy for?
chemical, mechanical, transport work
279
What is the process of phagocytosis?
It surrounds the food vacuole and releases the digestive enzymes in the lysosomes and the enzymes break down the food vacuole. While this is happening the Ph level is being lowered so the enzymes can function
280
What are glycogen?
Extensively branched polymer (branches every 8-10 units), Produced by animals , Stored in the liver and in muscle cells, hydrolyzed to monomers when energy is needed, Easy to digest, Provides immediate energy
281
What type of membrane surrounds the nucleus in an eukaryotic cell?
A double membrane
282
What are general specialized transcription factors?
They do the same thing and bind to the promoter
283
What kind of reaction is used when you are using ADP to build up ATP?
An anabolic reaction
284
What is a Cation?
A positive charged Ion
285
What is a structural isomer?
They have the same atoms/elements but their structure is different. (look at 01/25/23 for pic)
286
What is the dominate allele?
A gene that is higher or more dominate than the other gene more common (only need one gene to override other recessive genes)
287
What happens at the G2 checkpoint?
Sees if the chromosome replication is chilling and if its good it goes ahead and moves on but if chromosomes are damaged then they are killed off (apoptosis)
288
What is the function for the Methyl group?
Non-polar
289
What is the role of mRNA?
Carries code for proteins
290
What do hormonal proteins do?
Coordination/Regulation of an organisms activities
291
What are somethings we need to avoid or limit to prevent cancer?
Alcohol & tobacco
Exposure to the sun
Highly processed foods
Burnt foods
Unprotected sex
292
What makes proteins different from others?
The side chains of amino acids
293
What are the types of storage polysaccharides?
Amylose, Amylopectin, starches, glycogen
294
What are membranes made out of?
Phospholipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and cholesterol
295
What does the calvin cycle produce?
Glucose (sugar)
296
What is the leading strand?
The strand on the inside that is continuous
297
What function is performed for allosteric inactivation?
Binds to the regulatory site of an enzyme and turns off the enzyme so it can not perform its function
298
what does being amphipathic mean in a cell?
a cell that has polar and non-polar parts to it
299
What are chemoheterotrophs?
Organisms that get their energy from eating things and their inorganic carbon from eating other things as well
300
What happens to an isotonic cell during osmosis?
It stays the same
301
What is the natural base paring of this DNA sequence?
A
T
G
C
A
C
T
A
C
G
T
G
302
What is an electron shell?
regions surrounding the atomic nucleus containing a specific number of electrons
303
What is extracellular? And is it polar or non-polar?
It is the water outside of the cell/outside of the membrane and it is polar
304
What does the cristae contain in the mitochondria?
It contains the mitochondrial genome and metabolic enzymes
305
What does chloro mean?
Color
306
What is chemiosmosis?
Where hydrogen ions and ADP + PI move down their gradient, through a channel in ATP synthase
307
2n -1(chromosome) = what?
Monosomy (only have one chromosome)
308
Draw the phosphate group
DRAW ON PAPER
309
What conditions cause trp operon to be repressed?
When there is enough tryptophan already
310
What are general specialized transcription factors?
They do the same thing and bind to the promoter
311
when the molecules/atoms are on the top of a ring. What linkage is that?
Beta linkage
312
How many carbons, hydrogens, and oxygens does triose have?
C = 3, H= 6, O = 3
313
What happens in gene regulation and chromatin?
Tightly packed means genes are hidden and not available (Heterochromatin) and loosely packed means genes are not hidden and available (Euchromatin)
314
What are transport vesicles?
They load up the molecules and move them to their next destination
315
What is at the core of every nucleotide?
a sugar molecule (pentose)
316
What is an Ion?
an atom or group of atoms that has a positive or negative electric charge of + 1 or -1.
317
What stage are most of the cells in our body in? And what happens with the cells in this stage?
G0, They carry out normal functions, not preparing for division
318
What are non-spontaneous reactions?
Requires an input of energy to get the product, they are endergonic reactions
319
What is a Hydrogen bond?
A bond between 2 polar molecules (it's a weak bond)
320
What is a Chemical bond?
An attraction between two atoms, resulting from a sharing of outer-shell electrons or the presence of opposite charges on the atoms. The bonded atoms gain complete outer electron shells.
321
How are genes expressed when there is a lot of methylation, not a lot of methylation, and when there is a normal amount of methylation?
More methylation = no expression
Less or no methylation = high expression
Normal amount of methylation (some methylation) = normal expression
322
What is the function for the carbonyl group?
polar
323
What are the functions of proteinsoplasts?
Protein synthesis and storage
324
What is a genome?
It is the entire “library” of genetic instructions that an organism inherits
325
Explain the negative gene regulation in lac operon.
It's the normal way like you just explained bc you're so smart haha
326
What happens at the M checkpoint?
Sees if each sister chromatid has spindle fibers attached to it and if its good then they pass through and it not they are killed off
327
What are the nuclear pores?
where RNA is made and transported outside the nucleus
328
What are missense mutations?
A single amino acid change happens within the protein and doesn’t change the rest of the amino acid bases in the line
329
What are plastids?
A shared genealogy family of organelles that end in the word plast. They have divergent activities
330
What is the XXY: Klinefelter's syndrome? And some characteristics?
The gametes failed to get rid of an extra X chromosome and formed with a Y chromosome
Male characteristics
Breast growth
Breast cancer
Infertility
Learning difficulties
331
What is a phospholipid?
a fat molecule but has only two fatty acids attached to rather than three.
332
What moves through the ATP synthase in chemiosmosis?
ADP + pi, and hydrogen ions
333
What type of electrons does NAD+ take to the electron transport chain?
Electrons that have more energy
334
What is the reading frame?
(reading frame = group of three DNA bases)
335
What are the 8 roles of proteins?
enzymatic, storage, hormonal, contractile/motor, defensive, transport, receptor, structural
336
What is the back bone of an ammino acid?
N-C-C
337
What is the defining organelle of a eukaryotic cell?
The nucleus
338
What is the role of detoxification in the smooth ER?
adds hydroxyl groups to non-polar toxins that are in your body & facilitates removal of non-polar toxins
339
What is a Prokaryotic cell?
Cells that are found in two groups of single-celled microorganisms, bacteria and archaea. They also lack a nucleus or other membrane-enclosed organelles.
340
What is the elongation in DNA transcription in bacterial & Eukaryotic cells?
Where RNA polymerase reads the template strand and makes a RNA transcript
341
How are fats used in cellular respiration?
The fat is broken down into glycerol and fatty acids and used in cellular respiration
342
What are the types of membrane proteins?
Integral membrane proteins, peripheral membrane proteins, lipid anchored proteins
343
What is the repressor protein and what is its function?
Prevents RNA polymerase from transcribing or from binding
344
What do organisms use to build strong materials?
structural polysaccharides
345
What is active transport?
Uses carrier proteins to change the shape in the protein, and is moves the molecules/solutes against the gradient (moves them from low concentration to high concentration), and requires an input of ATP energy
346
What are Enantiomer?
Differ in spatial arrangement around an asymmetric carbon) results in mirror images (look at 01/25/23 for pic)
347
What are some types of non-covalent bonds?
ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, Vander wall attractions
348
What is the matrix in the mitochondria?
The liquid part of the inner membrane
349
What is an exergonic reaction?
Energy is lost during the reaction, has more free energy, is less stable, and has a greater capacity to do work
350
What is transcription regulation?
Product of pathway stops (tryptophan) transcription and doesn’t make mRNA
it is a Slow response
351
What are isomers?
They are made up of the same atoms. BUT have a different structure
352
What are the inputs in the pyruvate oxidation process?
pyruvates, NAD+, CoA
353
what are the types of vacuoles?
Contractile vacuoles, Central vacuoles
354
What is a glycogen?
An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.
355
What is light?
A form of electromagnetic energy
356
How do diploid organisms maintain a diploid genome when producing children?
One set of each chromosome (one sister chromatid) is given to produce a child. Mom and dad both give 23 chromosomes.
357
Why is calcium stored in the smooth ER?
helps with muscle contractions
358
What is protein processing?
Where proteins are in the inactive form and need certain actions to be activated again.
359
Where is a monotopic in the integral membrane protein?
it is only located on one side of the membrane
360
What are the products in the citric acid cycle?
NADH (3), CO2 (2), GTP (1ATP), FADH2 (1)
361
What was the study that James Watson and Francis Crick conducted?
They made a DNA model from the pictures of Rosalind Franklin (that they stole).
362
How many ATPs does the citric acid cycle produce?
2 ATP
363
What happens after mitosis?
Cytokinesis begins
364
What is the role of a disaccharide?
Energy source of plants
365
What happens in the investment stage in glycolysis?
It uses 5 different enzymes, has to receive 2 ATPs to start the process, and NADH+ comes in and takes the electrons and turns into NADH
366
What is hydrolysis?
Adds a water molecule to a polymer chain which breaks a bond (between the polymer and monomer)
367
What carries out cellular respiration?
enzymes
368
What are enzymes made out of?
Proteins
369
Which chromosome does not have many sex related characteristics?
The X chromosome
370
What is the function of a corepressor?
It binds to the repressor protein that activates it to bind to the operator
371
What is a macromolecule?
A giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules. Polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids are macromolecules.
372
What does tomos mean? And come from?
to cut, Latin
373
What is the active form of a repressor protein?
it inhibits (stops) the expression of the operons
374
How many ATPs does glycolysis produce?
2 ATP
375
What are some examples of anabolism?
Using amino acids to build proteins, using nucleotides to make DNA
376
What was the study that Frederick Griffith conducted?
He studied pneumonia and injected the R strain and the S strain into rats. He injected the living S strain in the mouse and the mouse died. He injected the living R strain in the mouse and the mouse lived. He injected the dead S strain in the mouse and the mouse lived. He mixed living R strain and dead S strain and injected it into the mouse and then the mouse died. And by doing this he discovered the transforming factor
377
What are photoautotrophs?
Organisms that get their energy from light and their organic carbon from themselves
378
What is the corepressor in the trp operon?
Tryptophan
379
What are polypeptides made out of?
many amino acids
380
What happens in cold and hot temperatures in the membrane when you add cholesterol?
COLD: disrupts tight packaging (expands it a lil)
HOT: restrains phospholipid movement (keeps the membrane tighter)
381
what are glycoproteins?
when a carbohydrate is attached to a embedded protein in a cell membrane
382
How many ATPs does chemiosmosis often times produce?
28 ATPs
383
when the molecules/atoms are on the bottom of a ring. What linkage is that?
Alpha linkage
384
How do polar molecules cross the membrane?
The passage of the membrane is impeded by the hydrophobic bilayer. So ONLY small weak pilar molecules can cross the membrane with no help from proteins. BUT usually need help from proteins to cross the membrane
385
What is Trans isomer in a geometric isomer?
Atoms are on the opposite side (look at 01/25/23 for pic)
386
What are some of the modifications the Golgi apparatus does?
Glycosylation (adding of sugars), Phosphorylation (adding of phospholipids), adding of fatty acids
387
What is a proteome?
The complete set of proteins made by an organism.
388
What is a compound?
A substance consisting of two or more different elements
389
What is an Ionic bond?
A chemical bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged ions. (when a cation ion and an anion ion attract to each other)
390
What is the basic unit of life?
A cell
391
What is a steroid?
A type of lipid consisting of four fused rings with various chemical groups attached.
392
What is a true nucleus?
a membrane enclosed nucleus found in eukaryotic cells
393
What constitutes a molecule?
2 or more atoms held together by a covalent bond
394
What is the role of RNA polymerase?
It comes into the DNA and reads the template strand. to make a copy of it. As it is reading it instead of pairing the the A's with T's it pairs it with U's and vice versa
395
How do we get AB blood type?
Because Ia & Ib are both dominate so they are both present in red blood cells
396
What cell is the matrix a part of?
The mitochondria
397
What is potential energy?
Stored energy that can be used to do work
398
What are Consumers?
Organisms that depend on producers or other consumers (animals) for food/ energy
399
What are the types of energy
Thermal, radiant, positional, chemical
400
What is mitosis? And what happens during it?
Chromosomes condense (spaghetti like structure to being packets of ramen)
The nuclear membrane is going to break down
Chromosomes will line up in the center and be connected but then they will move to opposite sides of the cell
Occurs in distinct stages
401
How does temperature affect enzyme activity?
High temperature speeds up the reaction
Low temperature slows down the reaction
402
How can we see the color purple?
Because the molecules absorb all of the other colors in ROYGBIV and reflect the color purple so we can see that color
403
What are the stages in the interphase stage?
G1, G2, S phase
404
What is anaerobic respiration and what are the steps of it?
It goes through the same exact cycle/steps of cellular respiration. BUT it DOES NOT use oxygen as the electron acceptor.
405
What are chitins used for?
Insects
406
What are chemoautotrophs?
Organisms that get their energy from chemical molecules (inorganic molecules) and their carbon from themselves. Eat other things to get their energy
407
What is Statistical significance?
confidence that our data is true
408
How can cellular respiration produce so much ATP?
It uses oxygen as it's electron acceptor
409
Where does chemiosmosis take place?
In the mitochondrial membrane
410
Cell theory
The theory states that all living organisms are made of cells, which are the basic unit of life.
411
How does an amino acid grow?
from left to right N-terminus to C-terminus
412
What is the coding strand?
The top strand of the DNA and has the same sequence as RNA polymerase
413
What is the prophase in mitosis?
Duplicated chromosomes condense and sister chromatids join in the center
Mitotic spindle (microtubules) begins to form
414
What does plasm stand for?
cytoplasm
415
What is the main propose of meiosis?
Replication of haploid gametes
416
What is Unity?
Having shared traits between 2 species
417
What happens to a hypertonic cell during osmosis?
Water will rush out of the cell and it will shrink
418
Where does photosynthesis take place in Eukaryotic, and prokaryotic cells?
Eukaryotes: In the chloroplast
Prokaryotes: In-folded membrane systems within the cell
419
2n + 1 (chromosome) = what?
Trisomy (has all the chromosomes you need + an extra one)
420
What is the state of the lac repressor when the corepressor binds to it?
Inactive
421
When NAD+ and FAD are carrying the electrons to the electron transport change. What do they turn into?
NADH and FADH2
422
How many covalent bonds can an atom form?
Depends on the amount of electrons they are missing
423
What elements does pyrimidine have?
Cytosine (C), Thymine (T), Uracil (U)
424
Why are enzymes used the most to provide activation energy to overcome the energy barrier?
Because it doesn't rely on chance collision, carries out specific reactions
425
Which atom is positive in a polar covalent bond?
The atom with the lesser electronegativity
426
STUDY THE PICTURES IN THE PICTURE TAB IN THE NOTES
DO THE PRACTICE QUIZZES
427
What does a protein do?
They are large, complex molecules that do most of the work in cells and are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs.
428
What are the steps of the citric acid cycle?
Acetyl- CoA (2 carbons)is joined with Oxaloacetate (4 carbons) to make citric acid (6 carbons). Coenzyme A is released, Citric acid is oxidized in a series of oxidation reactions, 2 CO2 are released , GTP is made into ATP
429
What is the ratio of purple to white flower plants in F2 generation 705 purple and 224 white? (dived purple by white)
3:1
430
What is the biological levels of organization of living things? (simplest to complex)
sub atomic particles, atoms, molecules, organelle, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystem, and biosphere.
431
What are the types of structural polysaccharides?
Chitin, Cellulose
432
What do storage proteins do?
Storage of amino acids
433
What is the differences between saturated fats and unsaturated fats?
Saturated fats have single bonds between carbons, and are solid in room temperature.
Unsaturated fats have double bonds between carbons, and are liquid at room temperature
434
What are the roles of polysaccharides?
Storage and structure
435
What was the process that Mendel did to cross pollinate the peas?
Mendel would cross breed parental generation (the pure breeds) then would get the F1 generation
Then would pollinate 2 F1 generation plants and would get the F2 generation
436
What is a karyotype?
When we take cells that are in the process of cell division and take them and line them up and take a picture
437
What is the function of catabolism?
Breaking down of complex molecules
438
What is the regulatory site?
Where the allosteric activators and allosteric inhibitors bind to the enzyme and either turn it on or off.
439
What is a selectively permeable membrane?
allows selective substrates to cross the membrane more easily than others, and it regulates cell entry and exit of the membrane
440
How do nucleic acids grow?
From prime #5 to prime #3
441
What different factors affect enzyme effectiveness?
Temperature
PH levels
Substrate concentration
Presence of Co factors
presence of inhibitors
442
Where is the trans face located on the Golgi apparatus?
The opposite side of the cis face (the end of the Golgi apparatus)
443
What is photosynthesis?
Transforming the energy of sunlight into chemical energy that is stored in sugars and other organic molecules
444
How does the presence of cofactors affect enzyme activity?
The increase of cofactors will increase the enzyme activity
The decrease of cofactors decreases enzyme activity drastically
445
What is the perinuclear space?
The space between the outer and inner membranes of the nucleus
446
What is Natural selection?
the process through which populations of living organisms adapt and change.
447
What is the function of DNA primase in DNA replication?
It reads the sequence and places RNA primers along the strand (the inhibitor)
448
What are starches?
a substance produced by plants, stored in amyloplasts, hydrolyzed to monomers when energy is needed
449
What is the function of keratin?
cell to cell adhesion
450
Where is the cis face located on the Golgi apparatus?
The same side of the rough ER
451
What is the signal sequence?
They are ribosomes/mRNA that have a signal sequence attached to them. The signal sequence attracts the signal receptor protein. Then the signal receptor protein will bind with the signal sequence and move it to a channel in the cytoplasm of the ER. Then it is sent into the ER to get translated into proteins. And the signal protein will be clipped off
452
What are the different types of inhibitors?
Competitive inhibitors, Allosteric regulation
453
what are Nucleic acids made of? And what linkage links them together?
nucleotides joined by phosphodiester linkage
454
What is the function of DNA polymerase III in DNA replication?
Synthesizes the leading and the lagging strands (the copier)
455
Complex enzymes are made out of?
Multiple polypeptide chains
456
What happens if a valence shell is unreactive?
It will not react with other atoms
457
What type of errors happen in DNA replications?
pairing errors, DNA damaging (by UVU light, radiation), Chemical mutagens (by base analogs which look like a DNA base but don't act like one)
458
What is the valence shell?
The outermost shell
459
What is the function of DNA polymerase I in DNA replication?
Adds bases of DNA where RNA has been cut out (the fixer)
460
where does glycolysis take place?
in the cytosol of the cell
461
What are oxidation reactions?
Taking away of electrons and removing hydrogen atoms from various substates
462
What do phospholipids consist of?
glycerol and 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group
463
What does diffusion always do?
it ALWAYS moves molecules from high concentration to low concentration
464
What are the roles of microfilaments.
Maintain the cell shape, cell movement (amoeboid motion), muscle contraction,
465
What does the pyruvate oxidation process start with?
2 pyruvates
466
What is the function for the Sulfhydryl group?
Non-polar
467
What are the 3 membranes of the chloroplast?
Outer, inner, & Thylakoid
468
What usually enters the membrane?
Nutrients ( carbs, proteins, amino acids, sugars), and oxygen
469
What is deamination?
It is where amino acids are used in cellular respiration. Where N3H breaks off from the amino acid chain and goes through cellular respiration
470
When will the cell de-repress the trp operon?
When there is not enough tryptophan
471
What do Enzymatic proteins do?
A catalyst that speeds up the reaction process
472
How many electrons can hang out in the 1st shell?
2
473
STUDY THE PHOTOSYSTEM
STUDY THE CALVIN CYCLE (watch those bioman videos and do interactive homework)
474
What are the steps of the electron transport chain?
NADH and FADH2 transfer electrons to complex 1 (then turn back into NADH+ and FAD), Electrons are passed through the electron transport chain in this order. 1. complex 1 2. Coenzyme Q 3. Complex 3 4. cytochrome C 5. complex 4, With every transfer electrons give off energy (that energy is used to pump electrons, and establish a proton gradient)
475
What is cleavage in protein processing?
the process of breaking the peptide bonds between amino acids in proteins
476
What cell is the viscous a part of?
The mitochondria
477
What are the functional groups and their symbols?
Hydroxyl (-OH), Methyl (CH3), Carbonyl (C=O), Carboxyl (R-COOH), Amino(N-H-H), Sulfhydryl (SH), Phosphate(-OPO)
478
Emergent Properties
a characteristic something/someone gains when it becomes part of a bigger system. ( help them better adapt to their environment)
479
What are the 7 characteristics of life?
1. Order, 2. Regulation/homeostasis, 3. Evolutionary adaption, 4. Energy processing, 5. Growth and Development, 6. Response to the environment, 7. Reproduction
480
What is chemical work?
Breaking and forming chemical bonds
481
What are the functions of chromoplasts?
pigment storage in flowers
482
What molecule does DNA primase add to the growing strand in DNA replication?
Ribose
483
How do substrates bind to an active site?
By non-covalent attractions (non-covalent bonds)
484
What is a lysosome?
A cell that digests food vacuoles
485
What are regulatory proteins in the initiation of translation?
They bind to the 5 prime untranslated region (UTR) which prevents the ribosome from binding
486
What happens to the cell membrane when it is hot?
Molecular motion speeds up, and the membrane becomes leaky
487
What is the main role of a mitochondria?
To breakdown fuel to make ATP
488
What was the study Archibald Garrod performed?
Basically he developed the one gene = one enzyme hypothesis
489
What are ribosomes?
Molecular machines that read mRNA and make the encoded protein
490
What are chlorophyll b and carotenoids?
They are accessory pigments to chlorophyll a (they help chlorophyll a in photosynthesis)
491
What are acids
They are proton donors
492
What happens if an electron absorbs energy?
It moves to a shell farther out from the nucleus
493
How are new amino acids added?
They are added to the C-terminus
494
What determines if a side chain is basic?
(made up of mostly nitrogen)
495
What is the function for the amino group?
base
496
What happens when proto-oncogenes mutate to oncogenes?
Drive a cell to multiply uncontrollably
makes the cell divide again and again and again
Unable to stop cell division
497
What is the recessive allele?
A gene that is lower or less dominate than other genes (need 2 or more genes to override the dominate genes)
498
What is Inductive reasoning?
a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion. (Specific observations lead to General conclusions)
499
What is an open system?
They exchange energy and matter with their surroundings
500
What is an atomic mass?
The amount of matter contained in an atom
501
What happens to the protons in the photosystem?
They are being pumped from the stroma to the thylakoid system and then used to make ATP
502
What is the inactive form of a repressor protein?
It allows the mRNA to do the transcribing it doesn't stop it
503
What are frameshift mutations?
Shifts the reading frame
504
How many electrons can the 2nd shell of an atom hold?
8
505
What is the prometaphase in mitosis?
Nuclear membrane is broken down
Chromosomes condense more
Mitotic spindle connects with the chromosomes in the center
506
What does the calvin cycle need to have to start the cycle?
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
507
What happens to the water in a hydrolysis reaction?
The water temperature rises
508
How does proofreading work?
The nuclease comes in and cuts the nucleic acids int the DNA and leaves a gap then DNA polymerase I comes in a puts in new DNA bases then DNA ligase glues those bases together
509
What determines if a side chain is polar?
(made up of mostly oxygens & hydrogens)
510
Cells
The smallest working organism that can live on their own and make up EVERY living organism and tissues of the body
511
What is the most common form of regulation in living organisms?
Negative feedback
512
What happens when cells get to the G1 checkpoint?
Basically regulates the cells and makes sure all the cells are good to go through to the next phase. And if something is wrong then it kicks it out of the cell cycle to the G0 stage or kills the cells if they are too bad (apoptosis)
513
What are some different cancer treatments and how do doctors perform these treatments?
Surgery (cut it out)
Radiation (kills cells in a specific area)
Chemotherapy (kills rapidly-dividing cells, feeds the body chemicals)
514
What is a polymer?
A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together by covalent bonds.
515
What are the 2 ways to maintain homeoviscosity?
Add cholesterol, adjust the saturation levels
516
What are atoms made up of?
Sub atomic particles (protons), (neutrons), (electrons)
517
What is the lagging strand?
The strand that goes in the opposite direction as the leading strand
518
What is the function for the Sulfhydryl group?
non-polar
519
What is nondisjunction?
The spindles do not work and don’t separate the chromosomes properly into 2 different cells (the sister chromatids)
520
What is the structure of DNA?
it contains a phosphate group, deoxyribose or ribose, and a nitrogenous base (ATGC) (a purine or a pyrimidine). And it is anti parallel (3 prime and 5 prime one way and then the opposite on the other).
521
What is an Independent variable?
a variable that stands alone and isn't changed by the other variables you are trying to measure
522
Where does the electron transport chain take place?
in the mitochondrial membrane
523
what does autosomal mean?
That 1-22 chromosomes do not have sex traits (X has some but not a lot)
524
What are proto-oncogenes?
Regulate normal cell division
Involved in cell division
Monitor cell health
Terminate cell division
525
What is the difference between atoms if they are called by a different name?
The number of protons
526
What is the anaphase in mitosis?
Sister chromatids separate
Chromosomes move to opposite sides of the cell
527
What are the 4 side chains?
polar, non-polar, acidic, basic
528
What is the tertiary structure in a protein?
the overall three-dimensional arrangement of its polypeptide chain
529
What is an Eukaryotic cell?
Are all other forms of life. Like plants, animals, humans etc. They also have a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles.
530
What is Feedback regulation?
Controls the amount in which you get back/out of. (more/less/the same amount)
531
What is lipid synthesis?
How hormones and lipids are made
532
What links nucleic acids together?
phosphodiester linkage
533
What are cytoskeletons?
Protein structures that give mechanical support and maintain shape in the cell
534
What is free energy change?
It is the free energy of the products minus the free energy of the reactants
535
What are some examples of photoheterotrophs?
Some kinds of bacteria
536
What are glycolipids
when a carbohydrate is attached to a embedded phospholipid in a cell membrane
537
What is mechanical work?
Mechanical movements in the cell
538
What is an isotope?
An atom that has the same amount protons but different amounts of neutrons, which also differs in atomic mass
539
What are specialized transcription factors?
They enhance the activity of the gene or silence it, they do not bind to the promoter. Either bind before the promoter or after the promoter
540
What types of molecules use simple diffusion?
Small, non-polar or weak polar, and non-ionic molecules
541
How many hydrogen bonds form when A forms to T?
2
542
What are nucleotides?
Chemical building blocks for DNA and RNA
543
What are the stacks of the thylakoid membrane called?
Granum
544
What are some examples of chemoheterotrophs?
Animals, humans
545
How did Mendel cross pollinate the garden peas?
He had to pull apart the pedals of the garden peas to cross pollinate them.
546
What is an Electron?
A subatomic particle with a single negative electrical charge, One or more electrons move around the nucleus of an atom.
547
What are the 3 structures and motors called in a cytoskeleton?
Microtubules, Microfilaments, Intermediate filaments, Molecular motors
548
What kind of energy is used in active transport?
ATP
549
What is a Variable?
A factor that varies in an experiment.
550
What is a closed system environment?
Where no energy or matter exchange with their surroundings
551
What types of molecules use facilitated diffusion?
Large sized molecules, and strong polar ions
552
What is a double-pass in the integral membrane protein?
(forms channels to allow substrates to come through the protein)
553
What does matter have the natural tendency to do?
Move towards the lowest possible state of potential energy
554
What does cyto stand for?
cell
555
What is a starch in a plant?
A storage polysaccharide in plants, joined by glycosidic linkages.
556
What alleles does attenuation effect?
The eye color alleles
557
What are nonsense mutations?
Creates a premature stop codon in the amino acid chain. Turns an amino acid into a stop codon
558
What are the differences between prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells?
Prokaryotic: Smaller size (1-5 micro meters), Simple construction, Absence of membrane-bound organelles
Eukaryotic: Large size (10-100 micro meters)
Complex construction, Membrane bound organelles
559
What is Deductive reasoning?
a form of logical thinking that uses a general principle or law to forecast specific results (General theories lead to specific conclusions) Ex: Sherlock Holmes
560
What are the 4 letters of a nucleotide?
A,T,C,G
561
What is chitin?
A structural polysaccharide, consisting of glucose monomers
562
An experiment is set up with 0.1mM sugar on the left of the selectively permeable membrane and 0.5mM sugar on the right. What will happen as the system comes to an equilibrium?
The water will move to the right and will rise
563
What are some things we need to do to more of to prevent cancer?
Add antioxidants, exercise more, do cancer screenings
564
What are redox reactions?
The transfer of electrons between electrons
565
In enzyme activity what does energy need to overcome to get to the product?
It needs to overcome the energy barrier
566
What are differential gene expressions?
Expression of different genes by cells with the same genome
567
What are the functions of molecular motors?
Uses ATP to move along microtubule highways, moves vesicles to their destinations, power eukaryotic flagella and cilia
568
What does phag mean?
to eat
569
What determines the chemical behavior of an atom?
The amount of electrons distributed to the atoms shells
570
How do nucleic acids grow? (use the prime #'s)
from #5 prime to #3 prime
571
How does bacteria cells respond to change?
Feed-back inhibition, Product of pathway stops it's own production (when production gets too much it stops (tryptophan) the production of the original enzyme)
it is a Rapid response
572
What happens when a photon strikes an isolated pigment?
An electron absorbs the energy from the photon and rises up to the excited state (a high energy level) then since it has no where to go it falls back down and gives off light and heat.
573
Which shells electrons have to most potential energy (say from highest to lowest)?
3rd, 2nd, 1st
574
Draw the methyl group
DRAW ON PAPER
575
How do you read the table of RNA codons?
The first letter us the letter on the left row the second is on the top and the third is on the right row
576
What are the roles of a triacylglycerol?
Energy storage, insulation, cushioning vital organs
577
What is radiant energy?
Light, gamma rays, x rays, ultraviolet rays, infrared rays etc.
578
What parts of a phospholipid are polar and non-polar?
They have polar heads, and the tails are non-polar
579
What do Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells have in common?
They both use DNA as the information storage molecules
580
How do we define atoms?
By the number of protons in an atom
581
What are the 3 parts of a nucleotide?
a purine or a pyrimidine, deoxyribose or ribose, and a phosphate group
582
What is an Anion?
A negative charged Ion
583
What was the study Thomas hunt morgan did?
Studied fruit flies and sex related genes
Found that crosses between wildtype females and white eyed males the white eyed trait was only found in males
584
What is Negative feedback?
the product of a something leads to a decrease in that something.
585
What usually leaves or exits the membrane?
Metabolic waste and CO2
586
What are deletion mutations?
Removes one or more bases and changes the rest of the bases along the line
587
What are alleles?
Alternative forms of a the same gene
Created by mutations
588
What is exocytosis?
fusion of transport vesicles with the plasma membrane. Where the organelles inside move out of the vesicle and the ones attached are fused to the membrane.
589
What is an enzyme?
a biological catalyst that speeds up the rate of a specific chemical reaction in the cell. The enzyme is not destroyed during the reaction. And is almost always a protein
590
How do nucleic acids benefit proteins?
They carry their genetic info (their blueprint)
591
What is oxidation?
the losing of electrons
592
What is a nonpolar covalent bond?
A type of covalent bond in which electrons are shared equally between two atoms of similar electronegativity
593
What are saturated fatty acids?
A fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds
594
What nitrogen bases form to each other?
A to T, C to G, U to A
595
What type of proteins is the rough ER responsible for?
secreted proteins
596
What type of reactions are NADPH used for?
Anabolic reactions mainly for the photosystems and the Calvin cycle (photosynthesis)
597
What are the 2 types of nucleic acids?
DNA & RNA
598
What does lyso mean?
To cut or break down
599
What are unsaturated fatty acids?
A fatty acid that has one or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon tail.
600
Why are Ia & Ib dominate but not i?
Because Ia & Ib are active and i is not active
601
What are the inputs of glycolysis?
glucose (1), ATP (2), NAD+ (2)
602
What is a lipid?
Any of a group of large biological molecules that are hydrophobic.
603
What is the Dalton measurement?
The measurement for atoms and sub atomic particles
604
Why does a eukaryotic cell enter the cell cycle?
Grow
Repair
Reproduce
605
What is the telophase in mitosis?
Nuclear membrane reforms
Chromosomes become less condenses
Microtubules disappear
Cleave furrow forms
606
what are the 2 stages in glycolysis?
The investment stage, the energy payoff stage
607
What are valence electrons?
Electrons that hangout on the outermost shell
608
What is the quaternary structure in a protein?
when two or more polypeptide chains join together
609
What is the role of the lac operon?
To break down lactose
610
Why isn't thermal energy used that much to provide activation energy to overcome the energy barrier?
Because in lower temps they don't have enough force or speed to bind together so the molecules bounce off each other.
In higher temps they do have enough force and speed to bind together but the probability of it happening is really low. It relies on Chance collision. And molecules/cells can die because of high temps.
611
What is a covalent bond?
A type of strong chemical bond in which two atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons.
612
What is the X-Y system?
Sex is determined by the combo of sex chromosomes by the sperm and egg (X or Y)
XY= male
XX= female
613
What are pigments?
A molecules that reflects, transmits or absorbs light
614
What did scientist change the one gene= one enzyme hypothesis to?
one gene = one polypeptide
615
What is the electron acceptor in cellular respiration?
Oxygen
616
Where does pyruvate oxidation take place?
in the matrix of the mitochondria
617
Where are contractile vacuoles found?
In single cell organisms (they are protists)
618
What is the nuclear lamina? And where is it located?
the inner membrane, and to give support to the nucleus
619
Whare are amyloses?
Unbranched polymers (a straight chain/line), 20% of plant starch, insoluble in water, forms gel when heated
620
What is the sequence in the nucleus in which we get proteins?
DNA is TRANSCRIBED to mRNA then mRNA is TRANSLATED to an amino acid chain and then the amino acid chain FOLDS in proteins
621
What groups of molecules use dehydration reaction?
Carbs, proteins, nucleic acids, amino acids
622
What is the default state of the lac repressor?
Active
623
What is positive feedback?
Where the end product speeds up it's own production
624
What happens in cold and hot temperatures in the membrane when you adjust the saturation levels?
COLD: It decreases saturation levels (makes it more fluid)
HOT: it increases saturation levels (makes membrane more solid)
625
What is the X-O system?
Sex is determined by the number of sex chromosomes sperm and egg
XX = female
X= male
626
Why are males affected by the X-linked diseases?
Males are affected most by these x-linked diseases because they only have one X chromosome
627
What are peptide bonds?
The bond between 2 amino acids
628
What are spontaneous reactions?
They have no input of energy, are exergonic reactions, will ALWAYS lose energy in the making of a product
629
What was the study that Gregor Mendel conducted?
He studied garden peas and cross pollenated them. He created the laws of inheritance
630
What is a valence?
The bonding capacity of a given atom; the number of covalent bonds that an atom can form
631
What is the Z-W system?
Sex is determined by the combo of sex chromosomes by the egg
Females= ZW
Males= ZZ
632
What is the function for the Methyl group?
Non-polar
633
What is the difference between atoms if they have the same name BUT have a different atomic numbers?
The number of neutrons
634
What are molecules?
2 or more atoms held by covalent bonds
635
What is life-span of mRNA in the initiation of translation?
Proteins that bind to the 3 prime UTR that initiate destructions
636
What is the cycle of enzyme activity?
E + S forms ES then to forms into EP then it lets go of P and becomes E + P ( E = enzyme, P = product, S = substrate) LOOK AT PICTURE IN THE PICTURE TAB
637
What are some examples of catabolism?
Breaking down proteins to amino acids, breaking down sugars for energy
638
What is facilitated diffusion?
Diffusion helped by a transport protein, powered thermal energy
639
Why are females not affected from the X linked diseases?
The second X chromosome will be more dominant than the disease in the other X chromosome
640
What is a chromosome?
A structure found inside of a cell. Which contains one long strand of DNA with hundreds of thousands of genes.
641
What are some examples of products of lipid synthesis?
Steroid hormones, oils, phospholipids
642
What is chemical energy?
Energy available in molecules that can be released in a chemical reaction
643
What is positional energy?
Energy due to an objects relative position (higher the positioning of an object the more energy it has)
644
What does Pi stand for?
inorganic phosphate
645
What are the inputs in the citric acid cycle?
Acetyl-CoA, NAD+ (3), FAD (1), GTP +PI
646
What are some other molecular groups that you add to help with protein processing?
adding of phosphate and sugar groups to the proteins
647
What does reticulum stand for?
Little net
648
What is crossing over in genetic diversity?
2 chromosomes pair up and exchange segments of their material (creates new combos of alleles and makes new alleles)
649
What was the study that Thomas Hunt Morgan conducted?
He studied fruit flies and did breeding studies. He demonstrated that altered genes were sex-linked.
650
What are the 4 mutations that can cause cancer (oncogenes) to develop?
Inheritance, viruses, mutations, carcinogens
651
What is the rough ER?
An extensive interconnected membrane system, that has ribosomes attached to it, and is the first stop of the endomembrane system
652
What is negative and positive gene regulation?
Negative = Operons are switched off by the active form of their respective repressor proteins
Positive = A protein interacts with the DNA and transcription turns on
653
Draw the sulfhydryl group
DRAW ON PAPER
654
What causes cancer?
Cells that do uncontrolled cell division
655
What is a glycosidic linkage?
Binds a sugar group (a carb) to another group
656
Where does the citric acid cycle take place?
in the mitochondrial matrix
657
What are the functional groups and their symbols?
Hydroxyl (-OH), Methyl (CH3), Carbonyl (C=O), Carboxyl (R-COOH), Amino(N-H-H), Sulfhydryl (SH), Phosphate(-PO4)
658
What must happen to Disaccharides or polysaccharides in order for cells to use them for energy?
get broken down to monosaccharides
659
What is dehydration reaction?
A chemical reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule. (same thing as condensation reaction but lose a water molecule)
660
What is the function of anabolism?
Building up complex molecules, it requires energy
661
What are the 3 steps of processing in RNA?
5 prime cap
Splicing (removal of the introns)
3 prime poly A tail
662
What do receptor proteins do?
Communication with other cells
663
Can Ions pass through the membrane with no help?
No it can't, because the size of an Ion is too big, water is strongly attached to ions, and a shell of water molecules forms around each ion
664
What electrical charge will free energy always be?
Negative
665
What is the operator and its function in transcription regulation?
Binding site for the repressor protein
(on/off switch)
666
What is induced fit?
When enzymes change shape to maximize interactions between amino acids and substrates
667
What is chlorophyll a?
The key light capturing pigment in photosynthesis
668
What kind of reaction is used when you are breaking down ATP to ADP?
A catabolic reaction
669
What shape/form is the active site?
The same as the substrate that binds with the enzyme (it is complementary)
670
What is the function of Topoisomerase in DNA replication?
It cuts the DNA helix to relive the tension then it glues it back together (the chiller)
671
What are microfilaments made out of?
actin and thin filaments
672
What determines if a side chain is non-polar?
(made up of mostly carbons & hydrogens)
673
What alleles are dominate and which ones are non dominate in red blood cells?
Ia, Ib are dominate, i is non dominate
674
What is the function of DNA ligase in DNA replication?
Glues two DNA bases together (the gluer)
675
What are the building blocks to make proteins?
Amino Acids
676
What is the sequence in which we get proteins?
DNA is TRANSCRIBED to mRNA then mRNA is TRANSLATED to an amino acid chain and then the amino acid chain FOLDS in proteins
677
What happens in the rough ER?
production, folding, modifying, and quality control of proteins
678
What kind of membrane does a Mitochondria have?
A double membrane
679
How can errors in DNA replication be made good again?
Proof reading by DNA ploymerase
680
What is the trisomy 21: down syndrome? and some characteristics?
adding an extra 21 chromosome
mental and physical challenges
681
What is the function for the carboxyl group?
Acid
682
What is the role of the trp operon?
To produce trytophan
683
What are the types of cellular work?
Chemical, transport, mechanical
684
What is the function intercellular joining in membrane proteins?
The binding together of 2 cells
685
What does an isotope have a tendency of doing?
Losing sub atomic particles
686
How many characteristic does one thing need to be classified "alive"?
ALL 7
687
What does hypertonic mean?
That the solute concentration is lower on the inside of the cell and higher on the outside of a cell
688
What is an oncogene?
A gene that has the potential to cause cancer
689
How much do protons, and neutrons weigh?
1 Dalton
690
What is the secondary structure in a protein?
Folded or coiled polypeptides
691
What follows electrons?
hydrogens
692
What is a proton?
A subatomic particle with a single positive electrical charge, found in the nucleus of an atom
693
What is the role of rRNA and other types of RNAs?
Structural
694
What are the products in the pyruvate oxidation process?
CO2 (2), acetyl CoA (2), NAD+ (2)
695
Amino acids are monomers for what polymer?
Polypeptides
696
What are the bases of DNA?
A, G, T, C
697
What is a double helix?
A DNA molecule
698
How does an amino acid look? (describe it) Where is the main chain, and which groups are on which side?
Main chain N-C-C, amino acid group on the left side, and an acidic (carboxyl) group on the right side, and the side group is on top
699
Which chromosome determines the sex of a baby?
The Y chromosome
700
What is the major function of fats?
energy storage
701
What was the study that Rosalind Franklin conducted?
She studied X-ray pictures of DNA. Found the shape and the size of the individual DNA molecules. Found that DNA is in a double helix form.
702
What does short life and long life mean?
Short life = quick response to environmental changes
Long life = long-term expression
703
What are the 7 characteristics of life?
1. Order, 2. Regulation/homeostasis, 3. Evolutionary adaption, 4. Energy processing, 5. Growth and Development, 6. Response to the environment, 7. Reproduction
704
How do non-polar molecules cross the membrane?
They dissolve in the lipid bilayer and pass directly though the membrane, and DO NOT need help from proteins to cross the membrane
705
What liquid surrounds the thylakoid membrane?
Stroma (luminal fluid)
706
What are the common features on eukaryotic & prokaryotic cells? (9)
Plasma membrane, Cytoplasm, Chromosomes, Ribosomes, Composition, Carbs, Proteins, Nucleic acids, lipids
707
How do you find out the amount of neutrons in an atom?
It's the Mass # minus the Atomic #
708
What are some examples of macromolecuels?
Polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids
709
What is the function of SSBP (single stranded binding proteins) in DNA replication?
It stabilizes the single strand form of DNA (the stabilizer)
710
What is the state of the trp repressor when the corepressor is bound to it?
Active
711
What is an atomic number?
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
712
What type of mutations are likely to form a loss of function allele?
1. Missense mutation
2. Silent mutation
3. Frameshift mutation
4. White mutation
5.Nonsense mutation
1. Missense mutation (answer)
3. Frameshift mutation (answer)
5.Nonsense mutation (answer)
713
What is cholesterol?
A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes
714
What does the contractile vacuole do?
regulates water pressure in the cell, pump excess water out of the cell
715
What do activators do in gene expressions?
Enhance gene expressions
716
What is the termination in DNA transcription in bacterial & Eukaryotic cells?
Where the RNA polymerase completes the RNA transcript and goes off from the DNA
717
What are the 2 types of cells?
Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic
718
What type of electrons does FAD take to the electron transport chain?
electrons that have less energy
719
What is electronegativity?
what attracts the atoms to form a covalent bond
720
How are genes expressed when there is a lot of methylation, not a lot of methylation, and when there is a normal amount of methylation?
More methylation = no expression
Less or no methylation = high expression
Normal amount of methylation (some methylation) = normal expression
721
What does karyo stand for?
"kernel" or nucleus
722
What part of the enzyme do substrates bind to?
The active site
723
What is simple diffusion?
Random movement of particles from an are of high concentration to a area of low concentration through the membrane, powered by thermal energy
724
What is a pyrimidine?
has one six-membered ring of cytosine, thymine, and uracil
725
What is the initiation in DNA transcription in bacterial cells?
Where the promoter marks the beginning of the gene for RNA polymerase and starts unwinding the DNA strand
726
What happens to the proteins inside the Golgi apparatus?
It modifies the proteins and phospholipids so they can be ready to be productive in the cell
727
What is a polar covalent bond?
when atoms with different electronegativities share electrons in a covalent bond.
728
What are compound molecules?
made up of one or more different elements.
729
what is the shape of intermediate filaments?
shape of an alpha helix
730
What is ATP?
Stored energy in the cell, it is renewable (can be used over and over again), requires and input of energy to make ATP (needs ADP)
731
What is the G1 stage? And what happens to the cells that are in this stage?
Undergo intense metabolic activity and grow
Makes everything needed for DNA synthesis
Typical time 5-6 hours
732
What is phosphodiester linkage?
Linkage between nucleic acids
733
What are the nitrogen bases used in a nucleotide?
A,T,G,C
734
What are Peripheral membrane proteins?
They associate with other membrane proteins and attach to them rather than the membrane itself
735
What are the 2 parts of metabolism?
Catabolism, Anabolism
736
What are the laws of energy transformation?
1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be transformed from one form to another
2. In every reaction, the universe always becomes more disordered
737
What do transport proteins do?
Transport of substances in our body
738
How do the pyruvates get into the matrix of the mitochondria to start the pyruvate oxidation process?
They use a transport protein
739
What reaction is used to bind fats and fatty acids?
Dehydration reactions
740
What was the study that Walter Sutton & Theodor Boveri conducted?
They studied grasshoppers and sea urchins. And observed chromosome replication during meiosis. And that chromosomes are related with inheritance.
741
What determines if a side chain is acidic?
(made up of mostly carbons, oxygens & hydrogens)
742
What are the inputs of the electron transport chain?
NAD+
FADH2
O2
3-4 H+ (hydrogen ions)
ADP +Pi (inorganic phosphate)
743
What does SOME mean?
Body
744
How do the proteins/phospholipids travel through the Golgi apparatus?
From one stage to the other (from one squiggly line thing to the other)
745
What are the 3 groups of life forms?
Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
746
What are the 7 simple sugars called?
monosaccharides, disaccharides, triose, tetrose, pentose, hexose, heptose
747
What other molecules can be used for cellular respiration?
Proteins, carbs, fats
748
What type of bond is used for amino acids?
By dehydration bonds
749
What groups tighten chromatin and what groups loosen them?
Acetylation group = loosens chromatin
Phosphorylation group = loosens chromatin
Methylation group = condenses chromatin
750
How can you determine the valence of an electron?
the number of unpaired electrons in its outermost (valence) shell.
