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Anatomy > Exam 2 Material > Flashcards

Exam 2 Material Flashcards

1
Q

T/F: enzymes are not efficient

A

False. They are very efficient.

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2
Q

How can we regulate amount of enzymes?

A

Increase enzymes = more products

Decrease enzymes = less products

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3
Q

Three methods of regulating enzyme activity are:

A

Regulating access to cofactors
Phosphorylation
Proteolytic Cleavage

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4
Q

How does the method of regulating access to cofactors work?

A

The cell adds an extra step in process of metabolism by making enzyme require a cofactor

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5
Q

What is a cofactor or coenzyme?

A

Organic molecule usually from a vitamin that’s required to produce the product.
Example from class: towel needed to connect w people vs just holding hands

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6
Q

What happens if you don’t have enough cofactors in the metabolic process?

A

Slows down process

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7
Q

How does Phosphorylation work?

A

Kinases add phosphate group to molecules,

Phosphatases remove phosphates from molecules

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8
Q

Is a reaction with kinase anabolic or catabolic?

A

Anabolic bc it requires energy

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9
Q

Is a reaction with Kinase encergonic or exergonic?

A

Endergonic

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10
Q

How does Proteolytic Cleavage regulate enzymes?

A

Amino acids temporarily block active site = Pepsinogen (inactive) then unfold to form pepsin (active)

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11
Q

what are hydrolase enzymes?

A

Catalyze a hydrolytic reaction

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12
Q

Types of hydrolytic enzymes

A

Nuclease, protease, lipase

Prefix = what they break down by hydrolyzing

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13
Q

What does ATPase do?

A

Catalyzes hydrolysis of ATP or ADP, liberating energy possibly used by the cell

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14
Q

Membrane transport mechanisms:

How does simple diffusion work?

A

No energy required, molecules follow their concentration gradient

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15
Q

What is net diffusion?

A

Mass movement of material from high concentration to low

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16
Q

T/F: net diffusion is constant

A

False. It stops once concentration gradient reaches equilibrium (molecules spread out)

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17
Q

Fick’s Law (rate of net diffusion equation)

What’s does D stand for?

A

Diffusion coefficient - depends on size of molecule

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18
Q

Fick’s Law (rate of net diffusion equation)

What does A stand for?

A

Surface area of membrane

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19
Q

Fick’s law (rate of net diffusion equation)

What does 🔺C mean?

A

Concentration difference across membrane

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20
Q

Fick’s law (rate of net diffusion equation)

What does d mean?

A

Thickness of membrane

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21
Q

What is facilitated diffusion?

A

Door or window is inserted to aid hydrophilic molecules cross membrane, no energy required, still following concentration gradient

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22
Q

What are carrier proteins?

A

Membrane transporters, have binding sites for the transported molecule

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23
Q

What is acute regulation?

A

Changed quickly

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24
Q

What is chronic regulation?

A

Changed over time

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25
Q

T/F: facilitated diffusion is highly elective to one or few specific solutes

A

True

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26
Q

T/F: facilitated diffusion is regulated by enzymes

A

False. It’s regulated by membrane proteins

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27
Q

What do channels do?

A

tunnel through membrane, specific for each ion

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28
Q

T/F: channels allow passage for all ions

A

False. Each channel is made for one ion. Selective based on ion size and charge

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29
Q

What’s it called when channels can be opened or closed?

A

Channel gating

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30
Q

What is a constitutively open (or passive) channel?

A

Material can always cross when following concentration gradient

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31
Q

What is a ligand-gated channel?

A

Opens only for specific ligand

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32
Q

What is a phosphorylation-gated channel?

A

Open/closed according to whether channel protein is phosphorylated or not

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33
Q

What is voltage-gated channel?

A

Open/closed depending on change in membrane potential (charge)

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34
Q

What is mechanically-gated channel?

A

Open/closed depending on sensory receptors, stretching or pulling forces

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35
Q

What is the electrical concentration gradient?

A

Ion floats along membrane bc of separation of charges

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36
Q

What is membrane potential?

A

Result of separation of charges across membrane

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37
Q

What is the electrical gradient?

A

Separation of charges across membrane

38
Q

What is active transport?

A

Molecules move against concentration gradient, requires membrane protein, requires energy

39
Q

How does Na/K Pump work?

A

primary active transport,2 K+ binding sites,3 N+ binding sites, requires 1 ATP, every 3 Na ions pushed out = 2 K ions pulled in

40
Q

What is secondary active transport?

A

Two molecules passing membrane, one is hitchhiking so doesn’t require extra energy

41
Q

What does a vesicle do?

A

Pod that carries stuff doesn’t interact w stuff inside cell. does exocytosis, endocytosis, transcytosis, and substance trafficking = all require energy

42
Q

How does vesicular trafficking work?

A

Kinesin and Dynein walk loaded vesicles along microtubules

43
Q

Epithelial tissues are vascular or non?

A

Non

44
Q

2 types of epithelial tissue:

A

Cover and lining, glandular

45
Q

Basic properties of epithelial tissues

A

Avascular, inncervated (lots of nerves), regenerative (quickly replaces lost cells)

46
Q

What is a tight junction?

A

Forms an impermeable junction encircling cell, prevents molecules from passing between adjacent cells, looks like a net

47
Q

What are the cell-cell junctions?

A

Tight, gap, adherens, desmosome

48
Q

What is adhesion junction?

A

Attack on inside of each cell like velcro, helps epithelial surfaces resist separation during muscle contraction

49
Q

What are desmosomes?

A

Act like “spot welds”, attached to cytoskeleton, tie all cytoskeletons together, reduces chance of tearing

50
Q

What is the only type of cell-matrix junction?

A

Hemidesmosome

51
Q

What is a Hemidesmosome?

A

Half a desmosome, anchor cellular sheet to underlying connective tissue

52
Q

What are gap junctions?

A

Connects cytoplasm of 2 cells, passes ions and small polar molecules, mostly btw nerve and muscle cells

53
Q

Where is the apical surface?

A

Exposed to body cavity

54
Q

Where is basal surface?

A

Attached to connective tissue

55
Q

3 types of covering and lining epithelia

A

Epithelium, endothelium, mesothelium

56
Q

What is epithelium?

A

Covers body surfaces, lines lumens of digestive, respiratory, and urogenital tracts

57
Q

What is endothelium?

A

Lines chambers of heart and lumen of BV and lymph vessels

58
Q

What is mesothelium?

A

Covers serous membranes

59
Q

What are epithelial membranes?

A

Combo of covering and lining epithelial cheer and its underlying connective tissue

60
Q

4 types of epithelial membranes

A

Mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial

61
Q

What is mucous membrane?

A

Lines body cavities open to exterior

62
Q

Where is serous membrane?

A

Peritoneum, pleura of lungs, pericardium

63
Q

Where is cutaneous membrane?

A

Skin

64
Q

What is synovial membrane?

A

Line joint cavity of synovial joints, similar to serous fluid

65
Q

Where to find simple epithelia

A

Places of absorption and filtration, areas that are already protected, single layer

66
Q

Where to find stratified epithelia

A

Places under constant stress, 2+ layers, not for absorption

67
Q

What do enzymes do?

A

They are catalysts. So they speed up metabolic reactions without being affected

68
Q

Describe capillaries

A

Simple squamous epithelium cells bound together like tile floor

69
Q

What kind of junction does central nervous system have?

A

Tight, for keeping stuff out to protect itself

70
Q

What makes up the epithelial membrane?

A

Covering and lining epithelia + its underlying connective tissue

71
Q

Functions of simple cuboidal epithelial

A

Secretes and absorbs

72
Q

Functions of simple columnar epithelia

A

Secretion and absorption

73
Q

What are goblet cells and where are they found?

A

Produce mucous, found in stomach and upper respiratory tract

74
Q

Describe pseudostratified columnar epithelia, what are the functions?

A

Single layer but looks like more than one, secretion partially of mucous

75
Q

How do you know if an epithelia is for protection or not?

A

Simple is not bc its one thin layer, stratified are bc they’re multiple layers

76
Q

What does squamous mean?

A

Flattened

77
Q

How do you name stratified epithelia?

A

shape of apical cells?

78
Q

Function of glandular epithelia

A

Produces a secretion

79
Q

Why Classify glandular epithelia as endocrine..

A

(Inside cell to blood stream) It secretes into extra cellular fluid then straight into blood stream

80
Q

Why classify glandular epithelia as exocrine?

A

(Inside cell to lumen of stomach) Secretes onto body’s surface or into body then into lumen of stomach

81
Q

What are cytogenetic glands?

A

Secretes whole cells, only in germline cells

82
Q

What is a hormone?

A

Ligand made by endocrine gland, carried through blood, finds its target cell and binds

83
Q

Are endocrine glands vascular?

A

Yes, very. Bc it secretes from inside cell directly to blood stream

84
Q

What’s the only important unicellular exocrine gland?

A

Goblet cells

85
Q

Structure of multicellular exocrine glands

A

Made of duct and secretory unit

86
Q

Difference in structure of exocrine and endocrine glands

A

Endocrine doesn’t have a duct attached to the secretory unit bc its its attached to blood vessels

87
Q

What are myoepithelial cells?

A

Contractile cells like a net that squeeze salivary and mammary glands to push stuff out

88
Q

Mode of secretion: how does merocrine work?

A

Products are secretes by exocytosis

89
Q

Mode of secretion: how does apocrine work?

A

Secretory product accumulates at apical surface and pinches off

90
Q

Modes of secretion: how does halocrine work?

A

Products are secreted by rupture of gland cells

Anatomy (15 decks)

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