Exam 1 (Lectures 1-9) Flashcards
1
Q
What is it important for all geoscientists to study the elements of the fossil record?
A
a) deciphering the dynamic history of life on Earth
b) dating rock units & geologic events
c) correlating stratigraphic horizons
d) interpreting ancient environments
ETC.
2
Q
Paleontology:
A
The study of the history of life, as preserved by fossils.
3
Q
Fossil:
A
Any tangible evidence of ancient life.
4
Q
Body Fossil:
A
Representation of the actual morphology of an ancient animal or plant.
5
Q
Trace Fossil:
A
Preserved evidence of organism activity (tracts, trails, burrows, etc.)
6
Q
Chemical Fossil:
A
Chemical evidence of ancient life (coal, oil, natural gas, etc.)
7
Q
Major Milestones in the History of Life on Planet Earth:
A
1) Age of the Earth
2) Oldest Minerals on Earth
3) Oldest Fossils on Earth
4) Oldest fossils in the State of Utah
5) Oldest Multicellular animal fossils
6) Oldest shelled animal fossils
7) Oldest vertebrate animal fossils
8) Oldest terrestrial plants
9) Oldest terrestrial vertebrate:
10) Oldest human
8
Q
1) Age of Earth
A
(based on radiometric dates of meteorites) = 4.5 billion years
9
Q
2) Oldest minerals on Earth
A
(dated radiometrically) = Earliest Precambrian (Hadean), 4.4 billion years old; individual zircon crystals from Australia
10
Q
3) Oldest fossils on Earth
A
(stromatolites and microscopic cyanobacteria) = Early Precambrian (Archaean); Isua, 3.7 billion years old, Greenland; Apex Chert, 3.5 billion years old, Australia; Warrawoona Group, 3.4 billion years old, Australia; Swaziland Supergroup, 3.4 billion years old, southern Africa
11
Q
4) Oldest fossils in the State of Utah
A
(several species of microscopic cyanobacteria) = Mid-Late Precambrian (Proterozoic), Uinta Mountain Group, northeastern Utah, 1.6-0.7 billion years old.
12
Q
5) Oldest multicellular animal fossils
A
(soft-bodied “Ediacaran Fauna”) = Late Precambrian (Proterozoic), 580-545 million years old; southern Australia, eastern & northern Canada, southern Africa, Great Britain.
13
Q
6) Oldest shelled animal fossils
A
(small shelly “Tommotian Fauna”) = Latest Precambrian/Earliest Cambrian, 540 million years old; Russia, Scandinavia, California.
14
Q
7) Oldest vertebrate animal fossils
A
(jawless “fish”) = Early Cambrian, 530 million years old; China.
15
Q
8) Oldest terrestrial plants
A
(“psilophytes”) = Early Devonian, 400 million years old; Rhynie Chert, Scotland
16
Q
9) Oldest terrestrial vertebrate
A
(Ichthyostega) = Late Devonian, 370 million years old; Greenland.
17
Q
10) Oldest human
A
(Homo sapiens) = Pleistocene, 130,000 years old; Kibish, Ethiopia.
18
Q
“System of Nature” (Systema Naturae):
A
Attempt by Karl von Linne’ (and others) in the 18th Century to classify all life forms in a hierarchical framework for scientific communication.
19
Q
“Tree of Life”:
A
Metaphor suggested by Charles Darwin (and others) in the 19th century to convey the connectedness of all the living world in an evolutionary context.
20
Q
Extinct:
A
Group of organisms that lived in the past but have no living individuals today.
21
Q
Extant:
A
Group of organisms with living individuals.
22
Q
Ontogeny:
A
Growth stages from birth to death of an individual organism.
23
Q
Phylogeny:
A
Evolutionary history of a taxonomic group of organisms.
24
Q
Analogy:
A
Morphologic convergence of features with separate evolutionary origins.
25
Homology:
Morphologic divergence of features with the same evolutionary origin.
26
Vertebrate:
Animals with an internal bony skeleton (fish, amphibian, reptile, bird, mammal)
27
Invertebrate:
All other animals that aren't vertebrates (e.g. sponge, coral, mollusk, arthropod, echinoderm, etc.)
28
Two Alternative Views of Life History:
Uniformitarianism & Catastrophism
29
Uniformitarianism:
View that the Earth and its inhabitants have changed gradually and incrementally through time by natural processes that can be seen occurring around us today.
30
Catastrophism:
View that the Earth and its inhabitants have changed abruptly and spasmodically through time by numerous major, sudden, unpredictable "catastrophes".
31
Organic Evolution:
Uniformitarian view that life has had a dynamic history through time.
32
Creationism:
Catastrophist view that all living things appeared suddenly and simultaneously and that life subsequently has had a static (unchanging) history through geologic time.
33
Intelligent Design:
Non-scientific view that there are no adequate scientific explanations for the complexities of life, so only a supernatural explanation will suffice.
34
What good is it to study (and memorize) taxonomy of living & fossil organisms?
a) we need an objective means of organizing an enormous amount of data for analyzing & interpreting significant relationships among the various kinds of animals & plants
b) we need short, simple names for ease of international communication among scientists who may not all speak the same language
c) we need clear, concise definitions of categories to avoid confusion & misinterpretations
d) we need a hierarchical system of classification to convey information about the evolutionary closeness of different kinds of organisms
e) we need a meaningful way to depict & appreciate the diversity of life on Earth.
35
Taxonomy:
The systematic biological classification of living and fossil organisms.
36
Phenetics:
Classification based on overall morphologic similarity of individual specimens.
37
Cladistics:
Classification based on evolutionarily significant characteristics. (homologous features...assuming evolutionary progression)
38
Karl von Linne' (a.k.a. Carolus Linnaeus)
18th century Swedish Biologist, developed Systema Naturae
39
Systema Naturae:
Systematic way of naming organisms
40
Taxon:
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
41
The Five Kingdoms:
```
Monera
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
```
42
Monera:
unicellular; prokaryote cells
43
Protista:
unicellular; eukaryote cells
44
Fungi:
multicellular; eukaryote cells; non-motile; non-photosynthetic
45
Plantae:
multicellular; eukaryote cells; non-motile; photosynthetic
46
Animalia:
multicellular; eukaryote cells; motile; non-photosynthetic
47
Species concept:
fundamental unit of taxonomy
Recognition, identification, diagnosis & description of new species
The paleo definition of species has to be based on morphology, not reproduction
48
I.C.Z.N.:
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature
49
I.C.B.N.:
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
50
Homonyms:
Same name for different taxa
51
Synonyms:
Different names for the same taxon
52
Types of Types:
```
Holotype
Paratype(s)
Syntypes
Neotype
Topotype(s)
```
53
Holotype:
Single type specimen representing a taxon
54
Paratype(s):
Additional specimen(s) to reinforce the holotype
55
Syntypes:
Multiple type specimens (as opposed to a single holotype)
56
Neotype:
New type specimen to replace lost or destroyed holotype
57
Topotype(s):
Specimens collected from the same locality as the holotype or syntypes
58
Taxonomy:
The formal classification of biological entities, generally is based upon physical morphology (observed) and evolutionary relationships (inferred).
59
What are the two common approaches to taxonomy? What is different about them?
Phenetics & Cladistics
| Vary in both philosophy and procedures
60
Phenetics:
(i.e. classification based on overall morphologic similarity) embodies the traditional approach of the Linnaean taxonomic hierarchy
61
Cladistics:
(i.e., classification based on certain key homologous features) is a more modern approach that seeks to identify evolutionarily linked "clades" of taxa
62
What is the rationale behind a Phenetics approach?
The greater number of physical characteristics hat two organisms share, the more closely related they must be.
63
What is the rationale behind a Cladistics approach?
Certain evolutionarily derived characteristics have key importance in understanding how two organisms may be related, regardless of the total number of characteristics they share.
Generally more subjective
minimizes the chance that you will confuse analogous characteristics with homologous characteristics.
64
Clade:
An evolutionarily linked group of organism taxa with a common ancestor.
65
Cladogram:
A branching type of graph that depicts the evolutionary relationships of clades on the basis of important homologous characters.
66
Outgroup:
A single taxon that represents the most primitive condition for all your taxa.
67
Ingroup:
All the other taxa of interest in your study - i.e. everything except for the outgroup
68
Crown Group:
The most derived (most advanced) clade in your study.
69
Branches:
Lines on a cladogram that represent particular taxa.
70
Nodes:
Branch points on a cladogram that represent the pertinent shared derived characters by the clades; a node represents the point of evolutionary divergence between taxa.
71
Monophyly:
Group of taxa that includes the common ancestor and all descendants; a true clade must by monophyletic in order to indicate a true evolutionary relationship among all the members.
72
Paraphyly:
Group of taxa that includes the common ancestor, but not all descendents are included; note that Linnaean taxa can be paraphyletic, but true clades cannot be paraphyletic.
73
Polyphyly:
Group of taxa that does not include the common ancestor (or even all the descendants of that common ancestor) of al the taxa in the group, and thus it is not an evolutionarily meaningful group of taxa; note that this it be avoided in any serious classification (based on either phenetics or cladistics) because it may be based in part on analogous (rather than homologous) characters.
74
The underlying rationale of both phenetics and cladistics approaches to classifying modern and fossil taxa is to reflect the ____________ relationships among those taxa.
evolutionary
75
Neither a phenetics nor cladistics approach necessitates that ____ be a factor in the analysis, so the temporal trends in the evolution of any particular lineage are inferred on the basis of a progression of ___________________ characters rather than ______________ occurrences in the stratigraphic record
time
"primitive to advanced"
"early to recent"
76
The traditional ___________________ is fully compatible with a phenetics approach, but it cannot be applied directly using a cladistic approach, which seeks to define clades rather than the traditional Linnean taxonomic categories.
Linnaean taxonomy
77
Monerans "Domains":
Bacteria & Archaea
78
Four types of Protists:
Foraminifera, Radiolarians, Diatoms, Coccoliths
79
What good are microscopic fossils?
1) They're very important in interpretations of biostratigraphy, paleoecology, paleoclimatology & paleogeography;
2) Countless specimens to study can be recovered from very small samples, including subsurface drill cores from oil wells.
80
Prokaryote Cells:
Cells in which the genetic material (genes) floats freely in the cytoplasm. "unicellular"
81
Eukaryote Cells:
Cells in which the genetic material is confined inside a nucleus "multicellular"
82
Autotrophs:
Organisms that produce their own sustenance (food) by themselves via photosynthesis (i.e., some monerans, some protists & all plants) or via chemosyntheis (i.e., sulfur reducing archaeobacteri in hot springs & deep sea thermal vents)
83
Heterotrophs:
Organisms that must sustain themselves by eating food (i.e. fungi & animals)
84
Benthos (Benthic):
Living on or within the se floor or lake bottom
85
Plankton (Planktic):
Living up off the sea floor in the water column
86
Kingdom Monera:
Single-celled organisms with prokaryote cells, including sulfur-reducing Archaeobacteria & photosynthetic Cyanobacteria ("Blue-green algae")
The most primitive life forms (appearing in very early Precambrian & extending up to the present)
87
Kingdom Monera Geologic Range:
Very Early Precambrian - Present
88
What is the only kingdom that is prokaryote?
Monera
89
Stromatolites:
Layered mats, mounds & columns created by multiple sheets of cyanobacteria.
90
Oncolites:
Concentrically layered "algal balls" created by multiple sheets of cyanobacteria.
91
Kingdom Protista:
Single-celled organism with eukaryote cells, including several hard-shelled groups with an excellent fossil record (e.g., Foraminifera, Radiolaria, Diatoms, & Coccolithophores)
92
What are the four groups in kingdom protista with a great fossil record?
Foraminifera, Radiolaria, Diatoms, and Coccolithophores
93
Phylum Sarcodina:
Microscopic, unicellular, heterotropic "protozoans" (inappropriately called "one-celled animals") that are characterized by lobe-like or finger-like extensions of the outer cell membrane ("pseudopods"), which are used for locomotion & capturing food particles; live exclusively in water (except for some moebas that live parasitically in intestinal tracts of animals)
94
Class Rhizopoda:
amoebas (no shell; no fossils) & foraminifera (microscopic calcite shells)
95
Order Foraminiferida ("Forams"):
Protists in a multi-chambered, calcite shell perforated by many tiny holes; all are marine; includes both benthic & planktic forms; CAMBRIAN TO RECENT
96
Order Foraminiferida ("Forams") Geologic Range:
CAMBRIAN TO RECENT
97
Class Radiolaria ("Rads"):
Protists in a spherical or conical shell that is constructed as an open latticework of opal silica; all are marine; only planktic forms; CAMBRIAN TO RECENT
98
Class Radiolaria ("Rads") Geologic Range:
CAMBRIAN TO RECENT
99
Phylum Chrysophyta:
Microscopic, unicellular, photosynthetic autotrophs (inappropriately called "one-celled plants"); live exclusively in water.
100
Class Bacillariophycae ("Diatoms"):
Protists in a radially symmetrical, discoidal or ovoidal shell composed of opal silica; both marine & fresh water; both benthic & planktic forms; JURASSIC TO RECENT
101
Class Bacillariophycae ("Diatoms"): Geologic Range:
JURASSIC TO RECENT
102
Class Coccolithophycae (Coccolithophores):
Protists in a spherical shell that is covered by disc-like or star-shaped calcite plates ("coccoliths"); all are marine; only planktic forms; TRIASSIC TO RECENT
103
Class Coccolithophycae (Coccolithophores) Geologic Range:
TRIASSIC TO RECENT
104
What will you see in calcerous ooze?
Planktic Forminifera
105
What will you see in siliceous ooze?
Radiolaria (planktic)
106
What are some common protists in the fossil record?
```
Planktic Foraminifera
Benthic Foraminifera
Planktic Radiolaria
Planktic Centric Diatoms
Benthic Pennate Diatoms
Planktic Coccoliths
Discoasters
```
107
Why should we care about fossil sponges (and other sponge-like animals)?
a) Sponges represent the simplest multicellular animals with a fossil record spanning more than half a billion years
b) some sponges & sponge-like organisms have been important reef-formers in the past (archaeocyathids in Cambriand, stromatoporoids in Silurian-Devonian, and calcisponges in Permian-Triassic)
c) Some sponges are major contributors of carbonate sediment
d) Some sponges produce sliceous spicules that provide a source of silica for diagenetic chert formation.
108
What are the Multicellular grades of organization of animal development?
a) Cellular Grade
b) Tissue Grade
c) Organ Grade
109
Cellular Grade:
Organism composed of many differentiated cells, which function semi-independently and are not joined together as tissues (e.g., Phylum Porifera and Archaeocyatha)
110
Tissue Grade:
Simple organism with various types of tissues (e.g., Phylum Porifera & Archaeocyatha)
111
Organ Grade:
Complex organism containing many highly developed organs, such as a heart, stomach, intestine, etc. (e.g., the true metazoans)
112
Phylum Porifera:
("pore-bearing organisms): Sponges with a porous body containing spicules and/or spongin; simple, aquatic, filter-feeding animals
113
Class Hexactinellida:
("Glass Sponges"): Relatively rigid sponges composed of calcite spicules; no spongin; exclusively marine, mostly in shallow water; CAMBRIAN TO HOLOCENE
114
Class Hexactinellida Geologic Range:
CAMBRIAN TO HOLOCENE
115
Class Calcarea:
("Calcisponges"): Relatively rigid sponges composed of calcite spicules; no spongin; exclusively marine, mostly in shallow water; CAMBRIAN TO HOLOCENE
116
Class Calcarea Geologic Range:
CAMBRIAN TO HOLOCENE
117
Class Demospongea:
("Demosponges"): Flexible sponges composed of soft spongin; with or without siliceous spicules; inhabit marine and fresh water; CAMBRIAN TO HOLOCENE
118
Class Demospongea Geologic Range:
CAMBRIAN TO HOLOCENE
119
Class Stromatoporoidea:
("Stromatoporoids"): Hard, solid, sponge-like organisms composed of densely laminated skeleton of calcite and containing radiating "pillars" of calcite within the "laminae"; no evidence of spongin; exclusively marine, occuring mostly as reef-builders in shallow tropical waters; ORDOVICIAN TO CRETACEOUS
120
Class Stromatoporoidea Geologic Range:
ORDOVICIAN TO CRETACEOUS
121
Class Sclerospongia:
Hard, solid sponge composed of a densely laminated skeleton of aragonite or calcite plus soft spongin containing siliceous spicules; exclusively marine, occurring mostly in cryptic habitats in shallow tropical waters; ORDOVICIAN TO RECENT (not very important as fossils)
122
Class Sclerospongia Geologic Range:
ORDOVICIAN TO RECENT
123
Ostium:
Small pore in the sponge wall, through which water enters the body.
124
Canal:
Tubular channel starting at an ostium and extending through the sponge wall.
125
Spongocoel:
Large cavity in the interior of the sponge body
126
Osculum:
Large opening, through which water is expelled from the spongocoel.
127
Spongin:
The soft, flexible, organic material that makes many sponges "spongy"
128
Spicules:
Tiny, hard, needle-like structures of either silica or calcite (not all sponges have these)
129
Draw and label a diagram of typical sponge
See 4a
130
Problematical Relatives? of Sponges:
Stromatoporoids
| Archaeocyathids
131
Stromatoporoids:
laminated organisms that are usually classified in Phylum Porifera
132
Laminae:
Individual, thin, calcite layers that make up the stromatoporoid skeleton
133
Latilaminae:
Discrete units of multiple calcite laminae.
134
Pillars:
Long calcite rods within the latilaminae; oriented perpendicular to the laminae.
135
Mamelons:
Rounded bumps on the surface of a stromatoporoid skeleton
136
Astrorhizae:
Star-like arrangement of radiating, branching grooves on the mamelons.
137
Draw and label a diagram of a stromatoporoid:
See 4b
138
Archaeocyathids:
cup-like organisms that are usually classified in a separate phylum
139
Phylum Archaeocyatha:
("ancient cup-like" organisms): Sponge-like organisms with a rigid calcite skeleton of two concentric, porous walls; simple, aquatic, filter-feeding animals.
140
Class Regulares:
Archaeocyathids in which the skeleton lacks dissepiments; LOWER CAMBRIAN
141
Class Regulares Geologic Range:
LOWER CAMBRIAN
142
Class Irregulares:
Archaeocyathids in which the basal part of the skeleton has tiny, irregularly arranged, subhorizontal partitions, called dissepiments; LOWER CAMBRIAN
143
Class Irregulares Geologic Range:
LOWER CAMBRIAN
144
Outer wall:
Outermost of the two concentric walls of an archaeocyathid.
145
Inner Wall:
Innermost of the two concentric walls of an archaeocyathid.
146
Septa (parietal walls):
Rigid, radiating partitions that separate the outer and inner walls. (archaeocyathid)
147
Intervallum:
Open space between the outer and inner walls. (archaeocyathid)
148
Central cavity:
Open space inside the inner wall (archaeocyathid)
149
Tip:
Pointed bottom end of the archaeocyathid skeleton.
150
Holdfast:
Calcareous projections of the skeleton near its tip, which serve to anchor the arcaeocyathid skeleton in place in the sediment
151
Draw and label a diagram of a typical archaeocyathid:
See 4b
152
Cnidarians:
Corals and their Relatives
153
Why should be study fossil corals?
a) Corals are very simple organisms that are voracious predators
b) corals are excellent indicators of warm, shallow, marine paleoenvironments
c) some coral taxa were major reef-builders
d) coral reefs are (and were) among the diverse ecosystems on Earth
e) some coral taxa are important biostratigraphic index fossils, especially rugose & tabulate corals in the Paleozoic
154
Phylum Cnidaria Three classes:
Class Scyphozoa
Class Hydrozoa
Class Anthozoa
155
Class Anthozoa Subclasses:
```
Subclass Ceriantipatheria
Subclass Octocorallia
Subclass Zoantharia
```
156
Subclass Zoantharia Three Orders:
Order Tabulata
Order Rugosa
Order Scleractinia
157
Class Scyphozoa:
true jellyfish; very poor fossil record
158
Class Hydrozoa:
"fire corals" and their kin; sparse fossil record
159
Class Anthozoa:
true corals and sea anemones; rich fossil record
160
Subclass Zoantharia:
6 orders of hard corals + 3 orders of soft sea anemones
161
Order Tabulata:
(tabulate corals), Early Ordovician to Permian
162
Order Tabulata Geologic Range:
Early Ordovician to Permian
163
Order Rugosa:
(horn corals), Middle Ordovician to Permian
164
Order Rugosa Geologic Range:
Middle Ordovician to Permian
165
Order Scleractinia:
(modern corals), Middle Triassic to Present
166
Order Scleractinia Geologic Range:
Middle Triassic to Present
167
Medusa:
Pelagic, sac-like body form or growth stage (Cnidarians)
168
Polyp:
Benthic, barrel-like body form or growth stage (Cnidarians)
169
Radial symmetry:
Multiple vertical symmetry planes radiating outward from the center (Cnidarians)
170
Basal Disc:
Flattened top portion of the polyp, on which the mouth occurs (Cnidarians).
171
Oral Disc:
Flattened top portion of the polyp, on which the mouth occurs. (Cnidarians)
172
Mouth:
The single opening to the central cavity (enteron) (Cnidarians)
173
Pharynx:
Throat-like tube leading from mouth into the central cavity (enteron). (Cnidarians)
174
Tentacles:
Arm-like, cnidoblast-bearing structures surrounding the mouth. (Cnidarians)
175
Enteron:
Central body cavity, which contains mesentery and digestive tissues. (cndarians)
176
Mesenteries:
Radiating vertical sheets of tissue (Cnidarians)
177
Cnidoblasts:
"stinging cells", which contain the poisonous nematocysts (Cnidarians)
178
Nematocysts:
Toxin-bearing sacs within the cnidoblasts (Cnidarians)
179
Corallum:
Skeleton of the entire coral colony
180
Corallite:
Skeleton of a single coral polyp.
181
Theca:
Outer wall of corallite
182
Calice:
Bowl-shaped top surface of corallite.
183
Fossula:
Deep, slot-like indentation in calice.
184
Columella:
Pillar (axis) in center of corallite.
185
Septa:
Radiating, vertical, blade-like partitions inside corallite.
186
Tabulae:
Stacked, horizontal, platform-like partitions inside corallite.
187
Dissepiments:
Multiple domed plates connecting the septa inside corallite.
188
Reef:
Biologically produced prominence on the sea floor
189
Tabulate Corals:
(order tabulata), Early Ordovician to Permian (Syringopora & Favosites are colonial)
190
Tabulate Corals Geologic Range:
Early Ordovician to Permian
191
Horn Corals:
Order Rugosa, MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN TO PERMIAN, Heliophyllum & Cystiphyllum are solitary; Pachyphyllum & Hexagonaria are colonial
192
Horn Corals Geologic Range:
Middle Ordovician to Permian
193
Modern Corals:
Order Scleractinia, Middle Triassic to Present:(Montastraea & Septastrea are colonial)
194
Modern Corals Geologic Range:
Middle Triassic to Present
195
Coral ecology and paleoecology:
Corals are sessile, benthic carnivores that capture, poison, kill and devour tiny worms, crustaceans, etc. They typically are fully marine animals (no fresh water forms).
196
Hermatypic:
(=reef-building) corals live in warm, shallow, clear, agitated, normal marine water. They house symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) in their tissues, so they requrei sunlight.
197
Ahermatypic:
(=non-reef-bulding) corals may live in cold, deep, marine water. They do not have zooxanthellae, so they do not require sunlight in their habitat.
198
Geologic importance of Tabulate corals:
important reef-builders in Middle Ord. to Dev.
199
Geologic importance of Rugose corals:
important facies and age indicators through their range.
200
Geologic importance of Scleractinian corals:
Important reef-builders through their entire range.
201
Reef formation: DRAW DIAGRAM A-D
Successive stages in the development of modern (scleractinian) coral reefs on subsiding volcanic islands (seamounts), as proposed by Charles Darwin from his observations made while sailing through the South Pacific on the voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle in the 1830's. A,B, Volcanic island skirted by a fringing reef. C, Volcanic island with a lagoon and barrier reef encircling it. D, Coral atoll with a central lagoon and no vestige of an emergent island above sea level.
202
How do we know for sure that life has evolved?
a) The worldwide successions of geologic strata contain successions of abundant fossils that offer clear evidence of the different kinds of living things that lived on Earth at different times from the distant past to the present day
b) there is no interval of geologic time with fossils of all types contained in the same or contemporaneous strata.
203
The fact of evolution:
The fossil record provides tangible evidence that life has changed markedly through time and that life has become progressively more complex, more advanced & more diverse through time.
204
The theory of evolution:
The mechanism of evolutionary change (i.e. natural selection)
205
Natural Selection:
Species evolved by differential reproduction, in which those individuals that are best fit within the physical and biological environment will produce the most offspring and over many generations will concentrate their advantageous characteristics in the population; thus, less advantageous characteristics eventually will be lost from the population over time. "Survival of the fittest" (Charles Darwin, Origin of Species, 1859)
206
Heredity
Inheritance of acquired characteristics
Who?
Jean Baptisete Lamarck, French, late 18th century
207
Heredity
Blending inheritance
Who?
Charles Darwin, English, middle 19th century
208
Heredity
Genetic Inheritance
Who?
Gregor Mendel, Austrian, late 19th century
209
Genes:
independent, inheritable units that dictate the physical traits of the offspring.
210
Chromosomes:
Paired strings of genes, occurring in the nucleus of eukaryote cells
211
Two Ultimate sources of new variation in an evolving species:
Gene mutation & chromosome mutation
212
Gene mutation:
Imperfect replication of the DNA molecules that compose the genes
213
Chromosome mutation:
Imperfect duplication of chromosomes during cell division.
214
Five characteristics of biological evolution:
Opportunistic, Competitive, Adaptive, Universal, Irreversible
215
Opportunistic:
The course of evolution is not pre-determined
216
Competitive:
Those that can out-compete their peers will survive to reproduce
217
Adaptive:
Species gradually become better fit to survive in their environment
218
Universal:
All living things are subject to the pressures of evolutionary change
219
Irreversible:
Once a species is extinct, it cannot reappear
220
Patterns of biological evolution:
Divergent Evolution, Convergent Evolution, Parallelism
221
Divergent Evolution:
("Adaptive Radiation"): Divergence of homologous characteristics
222
Convergent Evolution:
Convergence of analogous features
223
Parallelism:
Evolution of different lineages along parallel pathways.
224
Phyletic Gradualism:
View that evolution results from small, incremental changes proceeding at slow, uniform rates.
225
Punctuated Equilibria:
View that evolution is stepwise, resulting from short bursts of major change that punctuate long intervals of equilibrium with little or no change.
226
Karl von Linne'
Early 1700's
Swedish
Diversity of life; taxonomic principles based on anatomical similarities of groups of organisms; the "species" concept
227
Comte de Buffon
Mid 1700's
French
Species change from generation to generation by "degeneration" from their original perfect form.
228
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Late 1700's
French
Species change from generation to generation by "adaptation"; inheritance of acquired characteristics.
229
William Smith
Early 1800's
English
Biostratigraphy based on "faunal succession"; geologic map based on relative ages of rock units.
230
Charles Darwin
Mid 1800's
English
Species change via "natural selection"
231
Gregor Mendel
Late 1800's
Austrian
Heredity baseed on inheritance of "genes"
232
Hermann Muller
Early 1900's
German
Gene "mutations" caused by external agents (e.g., x-rays) as a mechanism for introducing new genetic diversity into the breeding population.
233
James Watson & Francis Crick
Mid 1900's
American & English
Chemical structure of genes; DNA as the chemical basis of heredity
234
Niles Eldredge & Stephen Jay Gould
American
Late 1900's
Evolution proceeds by "punctuated equilibria"; non-uniform, spasmodic rates of evolutionary change
235
Allopatric Speciation:
The speciation model by which two or more new species appear as a result of evolution occurring in different populations of the same ancestral species that were geographically separated (i.e, reproductively isolated) over an extended length of time.
236
Punctuated Equilibria:
Interval of very rapid evolutionary change within a taxon
237
Stasis:
Interval during which little or no evolutionary change occurs within a taxon
238
"Hopeful Monster":
Concept of a radical new mutation appearing in an offspring, which may or may not impart a significant adaptive advantage
239
"Red Queen":
Concept of the ongoing evolution of a taxon proceeding just enough to keep that taxon from going extinct.
240
Why are bryozoans given a name that literally means "moss animals"?
Because of their numerous tiny feeding tentacles, the fuzzy surface of a bryozoan colony often resembles that of moss, and some forms even are green, but they are not moss-they are animals!
241
Zoarium:
Skeleton of the entire bryozoan colony; may assume various growth forms, such as encrusting, massive, branching (bush-like or stick-like), etc.
242
Zoecium:
Body wall or skeleton iof individual bryozoan animal
243
Aperture:
Main opening in zoecium through which the animal brings in water & food
244
Operculum:
Hinged lid covering the aperture of some bryozoans (Cheilostomes)
245
Zooid:
Individual bryozoan animal; typically <1mm in diameter
246
Ancestrula:
Initial (sexually produced) zooid of the colony. (Bryozoan)
247
Kenozooids:
Individuals specialized for asexual budding of other zooids in the colony. (Bryozoan)
248
Gonozooids:
Individuals specialized for producing gametes (sex cells)
249
Autozooids:
Normal feeding individuals within the colony.
250
Draw a digram of the Bryozoan zoarium
7a
251
Life Habits and Paleoecology of Bryozoans:
1. Sessile, epifaunal, benthic filter feeders (using a lophophore).
2. Stenolaemates and Gymnolaemates live mainly in clear, shallow, normal marine water.
3. Often associated with articulate brachiopods & rugose corals in the Paleozoic.
4. Often associated with gastropods & pelecypods in the Mesozoic & Cenozoic.
252
Phylum Bryozoa:
Exclusively colonial invertebrates that live in a small colony (zoarium) of individuals (zooids), each of which lives in a tiny chamber (zoecium) and feeds by means of a lophophore; detailed taxonomy is based upon the microscopic shape of the zoecia and the zoecial apertures, as well as the macroscopic growth form of the zoarium.
253
Subphylum Ectoprocta:
Anus located outside the lophophre; mostly marine; the only bryozoan subphylum with a fossil record; Ordovician to Recent
254
Subphylum Ectoprocta Geologic Range:
Ordovician to Recent
255
Class Stenolaemata:
("narrow throat"): Characterized by long, tubular, narrow, highly calcified zoecia, which continue to grow longer and longer throughout the life of the colony; Ordovician to Recent
256
Class Stenolaemata Geologic Range:
Ordovician to Recent
257
Order Cryptostomata:
("Hidden mouth"): Exemplified by the finger-like Rhombopora; Ordovician to Permian
258
Order Cryptostomata Geologic Range:
Ordovician to Permian
259
Order Trepostomata:
("change mouth"): Exemplified by the button-like Prasopora, the twig-like Dekayella, and also the common Batostoma, Eridotrypa, Hallopora, and Heterotrypa; Ordovician to Triassic
260
Order Trepostomata Geologic Range:
Ordovician to Triassic
261
Order Fenestrata:
("windows"): Exemplified by the lace-like Fenestella, Fenestrellina and Archimedes; Ordovician to Triassic
262
Order Fenestrata Geologic Range:
Ordovician to Triassic
263
Order Cyclostomata:
("round mouth"): Exemplified by the organpipe-like Idmonea; Ordovician to Recent
264
Order Cyclostomata Geologic Range:
Ordovician to Recent
265
Class Gymnolaemata:
("naked throat"): Characterized by box-like or cylinder-like enclosures around the zoecia, which remain a fixed size throughout the life of the colony; Ordovician to Recent
266
Class Gymnolaemata Geologic Range:
Ordovician to Recent
267
Order Cheilostomata:
("lip mouth"): Exemplified by the bush-like Bugula and sheet-like Membranipora; Jurassic to Recent
268
Order Cheilostomata Geologic Range:
Jurassic to Recent
269
Graptolites: (what about them)
Extinct, but can be used for very precise age dating, used to define stratigraphic boundaries
270
Why are graptolites thought to be related to vertebrate animals?
Their morphology, as seen in some exquisitely preserved chertified fossil specimens, seems to closely resemble that of modern pterobranchs, which are marine creatures that possess a small tube resembling a notocord. Since vertebrate animals possess a notocord in an early embryonic stage, it is infered that vertebrates and pterobranchs are distant cousins, although their common ancestor probably occurred way back in the Precambrian. Thus by extension, graptolites are commonly fit on an offshoot of a branch of the family tree that contains the true vertebrates. However, the arguments linking graptolites to vertebrates are so tenuous that their correct taxonomic affinities remain uncertain.
271
Phylum Hemichordata similar/different than Bryozoans?
Different phylum than Bryozoans, similar structures
272
Class Enteropneusta:
modern "acorn worms" - only fossil record is trace fossils
273
Class Pterobranchia:
modern pterobranchs - no fossil record at all
274
Class Graptolithina:
Paleozoic graptolites - good fossil record, mainly in black shales
275
Order Dendroidea Geologic Range:
Middle cambrian to Lower Pennsylvanian
276
Order Graptoloidea Geologic Range:
Lower Ordovician to Lower Devonian
277
Classes of Hemichordata:
Enteropneusta, Pterobranchia, Graptolithina
278
Orders of Graptolithina
Dendroidea, Graptoloidea
279
Rhabdosome:
Entire graptolite colony
280
Zooid:
Individual graptolite animal
281
Theca:
Chitinous shell of an individual zooid
282
Sicula:
The single, conical theca of the first zooid in the colony; attached at top end to the nema
283
Nema:
Hollow thread-like structure extending from the top of the sicula
284
Stipe:
Single branch of a colony, containing a string of thecae.
285
Dissepiments:
Connections between the stipes of some types of rhabdosomes
286
Draw and label a graptolite
7c
287
Life Habits and Paleoecology of Graptolites:
1. Colonial (probably had alternation of generations)
2. Filter feeders (feeding habit using a lophophore, as inferred by analogy with modern pterobranchs)
3. Benthic (dendroid graptolites) or planktic (graptoloid graptolites)
4. Marine (generally open ocean and/or deep water)
5. Excellent index fossils in Ordovician & Silurian deep-water deposits.
288
Colonia:
Alternation of sexual/asexual generation to generation
289
Why are fossils important in stratigraphic studies of the geologic record?
Fossils of continually evolving life forms directly reflect the passage of geologic time, and therefore they provide direct evidence of relative time throughout the stratigraphic record as well as a very useful means for age-dating rocks and correlating regionally extensive rock units. Virtually all boundaries in the geologic time scale are determined using fossils.
290
Stratigraphy:
The science of dating and correlating geologic units of various types
291
Biostratigraphy:
Stratigraphy based on body fossils
292
Ichnostratigraphy:
Stratigraphy based on trace fossils.
293
Lithostratigraphy:
Stratigraphy based on rock types and lithologic characteristics.
294
Magnetostratigraphy:
Startiraphy based on paleomagnetic signatures in the rocks.
295
Chronostratigraphy:
Worldwide geologic time scale, based on all types of stratigraphy
296
Time Units vs. Rock Units Example
```
Time Units (Early Cambrian)
Rock Units (Lower Cambrian)
```
297
Biostratigraphic Zones:
The various kinds of units employed for biostratigraphic correlation.
298
Biozone:
Total geologic range of a given species (the basic unit of biostratigraphy)
299
Range Zone:
Time between the fist and last occurrences of a species in the study area.
300
Difference between biozone and range zone?
Biozone is more theoretic, range zone is actual data
301
Concurrent Range Zones:
Overlapping ranges of different species.
302
Assemblage Zone:
Zone based on several different species that usually occur together.
303
Peak Zone:
Acme, Abundance zone, Zone based on peak abundance of a species.
304
Interval Zone:
Consecutive range zone: Unit between two biostratigraphic time planes which itself may not have any fossils in it (Barren)
305
First Appearance Datum (FAD):
Earliest (lowest) appearance of an index fossil (F.O.)
306
Last Appearance Datum (LAD):
Latest (highest) occurrence of an index fossil (L.O.)
307
Facies:
Group of beds with recurrent characteristics that reflect the depositional environment
308
Lithofacies:
Facies based on common sediment characteristics
309
Biofacies:
Facies based on recurring taxa of body fossils
310
Ichnofacies:
Facies based on recurring taxa of trace fossils
311
Index Fossil:
Guide Fossil: A stratigraphically useful taxon with a narrow age range
312
Facies Fossil:
A taxon with a broad age range but restricted paleoenvironmental signficance
313
Stratigraphic Leaking:
Younger fossils residing in older rocks
314
Stratigraphic Reworking:
Older fossils residing in younger rocks.
315
Lazarus Taxa:
Re-appearance of supposedly extinct taxa at a higher stratigraphic level.
316
Elvis Taxa:
Convergent evolution produces "impersonators" of extinct taxa.
317
Zombie Taxa:
Stratigraphic reworking allows extinct taxa to occur in younger sediments.
318
Stratigraphic Resolution:
Finness (or coarseness) of the time increments that re discerned.
319
Stratigraphic Precision:
Margin of error in determining the stratigraphic position of data points.
320
Signor-Lipps Effect:
Owing to sparse distribution and incomplete preservation of fossil assemblages, it is difficult to differentiate between sudden or gradual extinction patterns.
321
Nicolaus Steno (Niels Stensen):
Mid 1700's
Danish
Foundations of physical stratigraphy based on detailed geologic field observations; established the principle of "superposition of strata."
322
James Hutton:
Late 1700's
Scottish
Concept of uniformitarianism "The present is the key to the past", and "No vestige of a beginning - no prospect of an end")
323
Georges Cuvier:
Early 1800's
French
Concept of "comparative anatomy" to demonstrate relationships between various kinds of animals based on their physical characteristics; first geologic map of a major region (Paris Basin) based on fossil occurrences, published in 1811.
324
William Smith:
Early 1800's
English
Concept of "faunal succession" in stratigraphy; first geologic map of an entire country (Great Britain) based on relative ages of rock units, published in 1815.
325
Charles Lyell:
Early 1800's
English
Major voice in the establishment of uniformitarianism as the foundation of historical geology; wrote the first widely selling geology textbook ("Principles of Geology", 1830-1833) and founded one of the first major geology journals (Geological Magazine).
326
Adam Sedgwick:
Early 1800's
English
Established the Cambrian System of rocks & Cambrian Period of the geologic time scale based on physical & biostratigraphy in southern Britain
327
Roderick Murchison:
Early 1800's
English
Established the Silurian System of rocks & Silurian Period of the geologic time scale based on physical & biostratgipahy in soutern Britain
328
James Hall:
Mid 1800's
American
First state geologist in America (New York); directed the first biostratigraphic surveys & earlist geologic maps in eastern Norh America.
329
"Brachiopoda" literally means "arm-foot" why?
Originally, the bi-valved brachiopods were thought to be related to the bi-valved mollusks, which have a muscular organ called a "foot". The brachiopod lophophore, which is used in filter-feeding, has two arm-like branches, which early biologist erroneously confused with the "foot" of mollusks. Because brachiopods share the "lophophore" (feeding structure with tentacles) with bryozoans, the braciopods in fact are much more closely related to the tiny, colonial bryozoans than they are to mollusks!
330
Phylum Brachiopoda:
bivalved animals with a lophophore & a pedicle
331
What are the two classes of Brachiopoda?
Class Inarticulata and Class Articulata
332
Class Inarticulata:
(brachiopods without a hinge; Lower Cambrian to Recent) - Four Orders
333
Class Inarticulata Geologic Range:
Lower Cambrian to Recent
334
Class Articulata:
brachiopods with a hinge; Lower Cambrian to Recent - Six Orders
335
Class Articulata Geologic Range:
Lower Cambrian to Recent
336
Lophophore:
Distinctive feeding structure inside the brachiopod shell, consisting of two arm-like "brachia" that bear cilia, which beat back and forth in the water to create microcurrents and strain suspended food particles from the water; attached to inside of brachial valve.
337
Brachia:
Two arm-like branches of the lophophore; attached to brachial valve.
338
Pedicle:
Tough, fleshy stalk attached to pedicle valve and extending from the beak of the shell. (Brachiopod)
339
Mantle:
Thin sheet of tissue that lines the inside of the brachiopod shell
340
Periostracum:
Brown, scaley, organic "skin" coating the outside of some brachiopod shells.
341
Adductor muscles:
Muscles that close the two valves of the shell.
342
Diductor muscles:
Muscles that open the two valves of the shell (only found in Articulates).
343
Pedicle adjustor muscles:
Muscles that move the main body mass around at the end of the pedicle (only found in Articulates).
344
Oblique muscles:
Muscles that rotate and/or slide the two valves with respect to one another (only found in Inarticulates).
345
Valves:
The two main parts of the brachiopod shell
346
Brachial valve:
"Dorsal" valve, to which the lophopore is attached
347
Pedicle valve;
"Ventral" valve, to which the pedicle is attached.
348
Commissure:
Broad "anterior" margin of the shell opposite the pedicle and hinge.
349
Beak:
Pointed "posterior" end of the shell, from which the pedicle protrudes.
350
Hinge:
Structure at the beak that holds the two valves together and allows them to open and close in an articulated fashion (only found in Articulates).
351
Tooth & socket structure:
Small projections & corresponding pits on inside of the beak.
352
Interarea:
Outside pt of the shell located between the two pointed parts of the beak.
353
Pedicle Opening:
Hole or notch in the beak to allow the pedicle to protrude from the shell.
354
Foramen:
Round hole on the pedicle valve.
355
Delthyrium:
"V"-shaped notch on pedicle valve.
356
Notothyrium:
"V"-shaped notch on brachial valve.
357
Brachidium:
Calcareous lophophore support on insde of bracial valve (only in Articulates)
358
Crura:
Simple, forked brachidium in Rhynchonellids
359
Spiralium:
Ornate, coiled brachidium in Spiriferids
360
Loop:
Curved, lasso-like brachidium in Terebratulids
361
Fold:
Broad central ridge (usually on brachial valve) extending from beak to commissure.
362
Sulcus:
Deep central groove (usually on pedicle valve) corresponding to the fold.
363
Class Inarticulata:
brachiopods without a hinge; shell may be composed of calcite, calcium phosphate, or layered or unlayered chitinophosphate
364
Orders of Class Inarticulata:
Paterinida, Obolellida, Lingulida, Acrotretida
365
Order Paterinida:
Cambrian to Ordovician, Tiny (<5mm) brachiopods with a biconvex, phosphatic shell that has both a delthyrium and notothyrium; not very important
366
Order Obolellida:
Cambrian Only, Small (usually <1cm) brachiopods with a biconvex, calcite shell that has a tiny, slit-like pedicle foramen; not very important
367
Order Lingulida:
Cambrian to Recent: Circular or elongate brachiopods (up to 5 cm long) with a biconvex, chitinophosphatic shell; moderately important as fossils
368
Order Acrotretida:
Cambrian to Recent: Tiny (usually <2mm) brachiopods with a flattened, circular, calcite or phosphatic shell; no pedicle; some forms are attached by cementing one valve to a rock or another shell; somewhat important as fossils.
369
Class Articulata:
Brachiopods with a hinge; shell always composed of layered calcite
370
Order Orthida:
Cambrian to Permian, Inequivalved shell, which may be biconvex, concavoconvex, plano-convex or convexo-concave, commonly with fine to coarse radiating ribs "costae", pedicle protrudes through notothyrium and delthyrium; no brachidium; usually impunctate, but some forms are punctate; important as fossils.
371
Order Pentamerida:
Cambrian to Devonian, Biconvex shell, usually with a smooth surface; characterized by a trough-shaped or spoon-like structure ("spondylium") inside the pedicle valve, to which the pedicle is attached; simple rod-like or blade-like lophophore supports on brachial valve; always impunctate; not very important.
372
Order Strophomenida:
Ordovician to Triassic, Grossly inequivalved shell, usually panlo-convex or concavo-convex, commonly with radiating ribs and/or concentric growth lines; characterized by a very wide hingeline and inflated pedicle valve; sometimes a pedicle foramen, or else no pedicle opening at all; sometimes there are long spines on pedicle valve; wide variety of spiralled lophophore supports; always pseudopunctate; this is the most diverse brachiopd order, so it is very important.
373
Order Rhynchonellida:
Ordovician to Recent; Biconvex shell with a short hingeline and prominent beak; characterized by a strongly corrugated ("plicate") shell with a very priminent fold and sulcus; pedicle protrudes throug a delthyrium; simple, forked brachidium ("crura"); usually impunctate, but some forms are punctate; important as fossils.
374
Order Spiriferida:
Ordovician to Jurassic: Very wide, biconvex shell with a long hingeline and short beak-to-commissure distance; characterized by its "wing-like appearance; promient fold and sulcus; pedicle protrudes through a delthyrium or pedicle foramen; thightly spiralled brachidium ("spiralium"); may be impunctate or punctate; important as fossils.
375
Order Terebratulida:
Devonian to Recent, Biconvex shell with a very short hingleine characterized by its "Aladdin's Lam;" appearance; shell surface smooth or finely ribbed; pedicle usually protrudes through a pedicle foramen; loop-shaped brachidium; always punctate; important as fossils.
