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22 spring: Physiology > exam 1 lecture 13 fermentation > Flashcards

exam 1 lecture 13 fermentation Flashcards

1
Q

plants can take sunlight and turn it into ____ which is stored as polymers as ___

A

glucose

cellulose (polysaccharide)
hemicellulose (polysaccharide)

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2
Q

cellulose

A

glucose polysaccharide
lined by Beta 1-4 linkage to form crystalline structure
not easy to breakdown (ligno-cellulose complex)

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3
Q

hemicellulose

A

strings of pentose and hexose loosely bound to cellulose

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4
Q

cellulose and hemicellulose are surrounded by ___

A

lignin
not a polysaccharide/carbohydrate but has a phenyl-propane base
protection of cellulose and hemicellulose

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5
Q

Only microbes have the enzymes to unlock covalent linkages (expose) carbohydrates followed by ___ - fermentation

A

hydrolysis

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6
Q

Colonization by microbes in the digestive tract becomes essential to exploit the ___ capacity of microbes

A

fermentative

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7
Q

Microbes derive energy and nutrients during fermentation for their ___

A

growth

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8
Q

___ mutual benefit between herbivorous host and microbes

A

symbiosis

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9
Q

birds transfer microorganism to their young by ___

A

regurgitating food

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10
Q

suitable conditions for fermentative digestion

A

Reservoir to house microbes in the digestive tract

Anaerobic environment (no oxygen allows for transfer of electrons)

pH range slightly acid to neutral ((>5.3) 6.0 to 7.0)

Passage rates are slow

Utilization of by-products and absorption of end products

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11
Q

chemical conditions for fermentative digestion

A

pH ((>5.3)6.0-7.0) slightly acid to neutral

buffering systems

VFAs

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12
Q

Physical conditions for fermentative digestion

A

reservoir

anaerobic environment (no oxygen) - O2 likes to be electron accepter, without it allows exchange of electrons through oxidation and reduction reactions

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13
Q

___ is a region of GI tract enlarged to store food and allow microbiota to colonize and facilitate fermentation

A

reservoir

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14
Q

___ are examples of foregut fermenters

A

Reticulorumen – ruminants

Pseudoruminants- not 4 chambers but 2-3

Marsupials – sacciform and tubiform –microbial colonization

Camels, ilpacas-3 stomach –small reticulum, one big rumen and leading to glandular stomach

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15
Q

hindgut fermenters have modifications to the ___

A

large intestine

Cecum – Rabbit

Cecum and Colon - Horses

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16
Q

foregut or hindgut reservoir are larger

A

foregut

hindgut are smaller and mostly used for fermentation of fiber

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17
Q

Access to protein is minimal in rabbits and therefore microbial protein formed in caecum is passed into fecal pellets. This is gold for them and they excrete at night and practice ___

A

coprophagy (eat feces)

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18
Q

in rabbit/hindgut fermenters, VFA acids formed are absorbed through the ___ epithelium

A

cecal

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19
Q

why do rabbits eat their poop?

A

coprophagy

recycle nutrients

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20
Q

where are microbes in a rabbit?

A

cecum- small so food can’t stay long

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21
Q

where does fermentation occur in horses?

A

cecum and colon- breakdown of fiber

Caecum is temporary reservoir and colon is the major reservoir

The digestive tract is pretty long and it takes quite some time for the feed to reach cecum and colon and therefore horse has to be constantly fed to provide continuous supply of feed

Pasture/hay is major source of forage – digested in cecum, colon

Protein, starch are digested in small intestine

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22
Q

fermentation in horses produce ___ where fermentation in rabbits produce ___

A

energy

energy and proteins- needs to be eaten again to absorb protein

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23
Q

•The redox potential is for microbial transactions is ___

A

negative (Eh = -250 to -450 mv)

oxidation reduction reactions produce H, this is split into protons and electrons, electrons are transferred by cofactors, so that the oxidation reduction reactions happen,

the more negative = more reaction occurs = more digestibility for the animal

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24
Q

•Fermentation produces metabolic ___

A

hydrogen

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25
Q

what happens to the oxygen introduced in feed and water inside the fermentation chamber?

A

–Diffuse across rumen and hindgut wall

–Used by facultative anaerobes

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26
Q

more grain in the diet will do what to the redox potential of the reservoir

A

more grain= easier to ferment = less reactions = more positive

more fiber= harder to ferment = more reactions, more protons and electrons = more negative= more digestibility

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27
Q

more grain in diet will cause the pH to do what?

A

drop

needs to be 6-7 for microbial growth

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28
Q

how is pH regulated in the fermentative reservoir?

A

volatile fatty acids from microbial growth try to lower pH make more acidic

buffers (bicarbonate and phosphate) increase pH

try to stay 5.4 for foregut fermenters (cows) and 6.0 for hindgut fermenters (horse)

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29
Q

roles of saliva in ruminants

A

lubrication

buffering NaHCO3

100-150 liters per day

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30
Q

roles of saliva in hindgut fermentation

A

moisten and soften food

flow associated with chewing

35-40 liters per day

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31
Q

foregut fermenters feed intake pattern are ___

A

meal based feeder

–Multiple meals per day (10) total eating time 2 to 3 hours with 7 to 12 hours ruminating

–Foregut fermenters process feed slowly

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32
Q

Equine are trickle feeders because

A

–16 to 18 hours a day eating to maintain a full stomach and constant flow through GI tract

–Hindgut fermenters can process feed more rapidly – higher passage rates than foregut fermenters

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33
Q

microbes need nitrogen to survive and get it from ___

A

proteins: urea, ammonia and amino acids

doesn’t want protein nitrogen sources- will have to waste energy breaking it down

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34
Q

do fermenters need fats?

A

no, microbes can make their own fatty acids. do not need supplementation

excess fat can bind to cell walls of bacteria and inhibit microbial fermentation

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35
Q

foregut fermenters can eat

A

pastures, grasses, hay, silages and grain

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36
Q

horses/ hind gut fermenters can eat ___

A

grasses, hay and grain

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37
Q

dietary factors/ nutrients between foregut and hindgut

A

NPN= non protein nitrogen

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38
Q

why not feed fine food to fermenters

A

fine foods, too small. pass through without getting fermented

  • Passage and degradation–Proportion degraded is a function of
  • Kd/(Kd + Kp)

–Kd is a characteristic of the feed

–Kp is a function of body size, feed intake, and physical characteristics of the diet

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39
Q

Kd/(Kd + Kp)

A

•Passage and degradation

–Kd is a characteristic of the feed

–Kp is a function of body size, feed intake, and physical characteristics of the diet

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40
Q

fiber digestibility is __ in foregut fermenters than hindgut fermenters

A

higher

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41
Q

where is starch and protein digested in a fermenter?

A

hindgut= SI and a little in the LI

foregut= most in the rumen, some in the SI and very little in the large bowel

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42
Q

In equines, most of dietary starch and CP are digested in the___

A

small intestine

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43
Q

Both starch and protein are digested in the rumen, starch is also digested in the ___ but lower compared to rumen

A

lower gut

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44
Q

in a lactating cow vs dry cow, which eats more? and how long will things stay in the rumen?

A

lactating cows eat more

grains: will move faster in a lactating cow cause she is eating more and the starch can be broken down faster= eats more, digested faster = same amount of starch absorbed?

hay: same time in dry or lactating cow- needs to be fermented, lactation does not affect this speed

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45
Q

passage rate in equine

A

very fast stomach to cecum→ 3.7 hours

slow: cecum to colon → 1-3 days

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46
Q

foregut fermenter microbiome is made of

A

bacteria

protozoa

fungi (break down lignin in plants)

archaea (hydrogen foraging)

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47
Q

rumen bacteria form complex enzyme complexes called __ to make it easier to breakdown fiber

A

cellulosomes

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48
Q

rumen portozoa

A

50% biomass, but less in number compared to bacteria

ciliates: holotrichs (cilia throughout) and oligotrichs (cilia only at the mouth)

protozoa need help from bacteria and archaea to preform correctly

issues: produce H which can produce methanogens→ methane production. eat bacteria and the material they produce that would produce bacterial protein → nitrogen inefficiency

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49
Q

what would happen in protozoa were removed from rumen

A

defaunation

bacteria protein produced by bacteria would survive, because protozoa usually eat bacteria

decrease in methane gas

30% decrease in breakdown of fiber

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50
Q

anaerobic fungi in rumen

A

abundant on fibrous diets

zoospores swim until they grow zoosporangium and attach to fiber/plant particle and relate to carb digestion, grow rhizoids until big enough to release more zoospores and restart cycle

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51
Q

anaerobic fungi are mostly found in what kind of fermenters?

A

foregut

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52
Q

rumen archaea

A

scavenge hydrogen

do not contribute to feed fermentation directly

naturally form methane

Methane mitigation strategies can have negative implications on fiber digestion and rumen fermentation

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53
Q

rumen archaea produce methane via three pathways

A

Hydrogenotrophic methanogens (CO2 + H2)

Methylotrophic methanogens (Methylamides as substrates)

Aceticlastic methanogens (Acetate as substrate)

Methane mitigation strategies can have negative implications on fiber digestion and rumen fermentation

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54
Q

microbes need what to survice

A

CO2

energy (ATP released during fermentation of carbs and proteins)

nitrogen (ammonia, peptides, amino acids)

minerals

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55
Q

overview of microbial fermentation

A

cell wall made of cellulose and hemicellulose

break in cellulose, primary fermenter attaches and turns cellulose into oligosaccharides and polysaccharides

these then get broken down even more into acetate, butyrate, propinoate and methane

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56
Q

hindgut fermenters produce acetate instead of methane, why?

A

smaller container makes less H

acetogen will bind better then methanogens → acetate

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57
Q

___ mitigation strategies can have negative implications on fiber digestion and rumen fermentation

A

Methane

58
Q

Herbivorous animals depend on ___to digest plant materials

A

microbes

59
Q

Ruminants are ___ fermenters (reticulo-rumen) and hindgut fermenters have modification in ___

A

foregut

caecum (rabbits) and colon (equines)

60
Q

A ___ to store food, a pH of ___and anerobic conditions are prerequisites for microbial colonization

A

reservoir

6-7

61
Q

Foregut fermenters can digest ___ whereas hindgut fermenters can ferment ___

A

fiber, starch and protein

good quality fiber

62
Q

Passage rates are lower in ___ fermenters and higher in ___ fermenters.

A

foregut

hindgut

63
Q

___ rates depend on quality of feed, feed intake, feed characteristics, digestion rates and the host

A

Passage

64
Q

Microbiota include bacteria, ___ and archaea

A

protozoa, fungi

65
Q

Bacteria, fungi and protozoa contribute to cellulose digestion whereas ___ are hydrogen scavengers and exclusively form methane

A

archaea

66
Q

The nutrient requirements of microbes are ___, ___ from ammonia or peptides and minerals

A

ATP released during carbohydrate fermentation

nitrogen

67
Q

carbs are comprised of

A

neutral detergent fiber (NDF: cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin)

Non fiber carbohydrates (Pectin, starch and simple sugars)

68
Q

neutral detergent fibers such as cellulose and hemicellulose is fermented ___

A

slowly

69
Q

non fiber carbs such as pectin and starch are fermented ___

A

quickly

70
Q

–High forage rations have higher ___ and therefore a controlled rate of fermentation

A

NDF

neutral detergent fiber (NDF: cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin)

slower fermentation

71
Q

–High Grain rations contribute to readily available carbohydrates and may lead to ___ fermentation

A

runaway

starch and pectin (too fast breakdown)

72
Q

particle size changes fermentation how?

A

physically effective NDF

too small =too fast

too big = too slow

¾ inch= happy place

needs to facilitate colonization of microbes

73
Q

there needs to be a balance between ___ and ___ for carb fermentation

A

•neutral detergent fiber (NDF: cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin) and Non fiber carbohydrates (Pectin, starch and simple sugars)

74
Q

two stages of cellulose digestion

A

microbial attachment (colonization)

hydrolysis (enzymatic)

75
Q

microbial attachment stage of cellulose fermentation

A

colonization (1st step)

Slow process (Lag phase)- rumination (churning to increase SA and allow growth)

Specific and non-specific binding

76
Q

hydrolysis/ enzymatic stage of fermentation

A

2nd stage

a. Endoenzymes
b. Exoenzymes
c. Multi-enzyme complexes

77
Q

phase 1 of carb breakdown

A

cellulose, starch, pectin and hemicellulose get broken down and turned into pyruvate

78
Q

phase II carb breakdown

A

pyruvate → volatile fatty acids: acetate, propionate, butyrate, CO2 and CH4

Two pathways for propionate production

Dicarboxylic Acid: Forage rations

Acrylate: Grain Rations

Runaway fermentation (high grain) can lead to accumulation of lactate; when lactate production exceeds capacity of acrylate pathway

79
Q

bacteria fermentation will turn pyruvate into

A

acetate, formate, H2 and methane

80
Q

pyruvate → butyrate

A

two ways: dependent and not dependent on acetate

81
Q

amount of grain in the diet will determine how fast pyruvate → ___

A

propionate

82
Q

increase in volatile fatty acids triggers what?

A

decrease in pH

tiggers changes in rumen epithelium

83
Q

most VFA can be absorbed by diffusion, except for ___

A

butyrate

84
Q

what happens to acetate when it leaves the rumen

A

used for oxidation, fat

important as precursor for milk fat

85
Q

what happens to propionate when it leaves the rumen

A

used liver → glucose

important as determinant of milk volume

86
Q

what happens to butyrate when it leaves the rumen

A

portal vein → beta-OH-butyrate

used for oxidation, fat

stimulates rumen development and papillae length

87
Q

why is fiber more important for dairy cow

A

breakdown of fiber → acetate and butyrate → needed for milk fat production

88
Q

why can beef cows eat more grain then dairy?

A

grain= propionate- gluconeogenic

fiber = acetate and butyrate= needed for milk fat production

89
Q

carb digestion in equines is a balance between ___ and ___

A

forage (fiber) and grains

90
Q

forages/fiber is fermented in the __ of a horse

A

cecum and colon

91
Q

in horses, if grains are fed at a rate beyond the digestive capacity of the small intestine can lead to ___

A

colic, diarrhea, laminitis and microbial dysbiosis (runaway fermentation)

92
Q

___produced by carb digestion in horses provided immediate supply of energy.

A

VFA

93
Q

•The major reason for microbial fermentation is ___ digestion

A

fiber

94
Q

•Fiber carbohydrates are ___ and hemicellulose.

A

cellulose

95
Q

•Carbohydrate are fermented to ___ that serve as metabolic fuel. Methane is a by-product of fermentation.

A

VFA

96
Q

•____ are the major VFA produced by carb fermentation.

A

Acetate, propionate and butyrate

97
Q

High fiber yields ___ and more grain increases ___.

A

acetate

propionate

98
Q

Acetate and butyrate are needed for ___ or meat. Propionate is gluconeogenic and correlated with ___.

A

fatty acid synthesis in milk

milk yield.

99
Q

•More fiber in the diet is good for microbes and is sufficient for ___

A

maintenance

100
Q

Grain is needed to enhance fermentation by increasing molar proportion of ___

A

propionate.

101
Q

Excessive grain can lead to ___ formation, drop in pH and causes microbial dysbiosis in both foregut and hindgut fermenters. A balance between fiber and grain is critical for microbial efficiency

A

lactate

102
Q

Optimal particle ___ is needed for rumen mat formation and facilitate microbial colonization

A

size

103
Q

Microbes need protein in the form of ___ for their growth.

A

nitrogen

104
Q

dietary crude protein is broken into two (true protein and NPN) what are these

A

true protein: can not be broken down by microbes, moves through foregut to be digested later on for animals with higher protein requirments

NPN (non protein nitrogen): needed to feed microbes so they can breakdown other things like fiber

105
Q

where can microbes get nitrogen

A

from the diet NPN

from recycled microbial protein (bacteria and protozoa)

endogenous nitrogen: saliva/ dead cells (urea and abraded epithelial cells)

106
Q

Microbes prefer to utilize ___from ammonia and so all nitrogen sources are converted to ammonia

A

nitrogen

107
Q

1st step of protein metabolism is proteolysis, which is ___

A

convert nitrogen source to ammonia

108
Q

microbial protein synthesis

A

The nitrogen source from ammonia forms the building block for microbial protein formation

Need fermentable carbohydrate to supply ATP for microbial protein synthesis

Beneficial to microbes and the host

Microbial protein synthesis occurs in both foregut and hindgut fermenters to support microbial growth

Microbial protein is utilized only in foregut fermenters. It is not absorbed but excreted in hindgut fermenters.

109
Q

proteins are broken into ammonia by __ and __

A

bacteria and Protozoa

110
Q

2nd step of protein synthesis in the rumen

A

ammonia + energy → microbial cells

Microbial protein synthesis requires N sources (ammonia, peptides, aminoacids) plus a continuous supply of fermentable carbohydrates to supply energy along with growth factors

111
Q

too little energy to push ammonia to microbical protein can result in

A

ammonia/urea toxicity

112
Q

•Protein hydrolysis to ammonia and ammonia capture to microbial protein should go hand in hand to avoid ___.

A

nitrogen inefficiency

113
Q

•Synchronization of protein degradation and supply of ___ is important.

A

fermentable carbohydrate

114
Q

•Diets are formulated to increase microbial ___ (cheap and best quality) for ruminants

A

protein

115
Q

•Microbial protein is of little value to ___fermenters

A

hindgut

116
Q

As the rate of passage from the rumen increases there is greater opportunity for ___ to pass out of the rumen.

A

bacteria

117
Q

Microbes synthesize their own ___ and there is no need for dietary supplementation

A

fatty acids

118
Q

Fatty acids are present as complex ___(galactolipids, phospholipids in forages)

A

lipids

119
Q

Microbes cannot tolerate more than __% in dietary lipids

A

3

120
Q

Excessive___ can be harmful to microbes and reduce their activity

A

lipids

121
Q

To avoid toxicity to microbes, protected ___ are added to ruminant diets to bypass the rumen but available in lower gut

A

fats

122
Q

In___ fermenters, lipids are not accessible to microbes

A

hindgut

123
Q

•Lipolysis: Complex lipids are hydrolyzed to ___ and glycerol by lipolytic bacteria

A

free fatty acids

124
Q

Glycerol is converted to VFA’s; Free fatty acids are ___ in nature

A

unsaturated

125
Q

___ : Hydrolyze triglycerides and phospholipids

A

Anerovibrio lipolytica

126
Q

___ Hydrolyze galactolipids, phospholipids, and sulfolipids

A

Butyrvibrio fibrisolvens

127
Q

___: Conversion of unsaturated FA to saturated FA resulting in the formation of several isomers termed as bioactive fats

A

Biohydrogenation

128
Q

cis-9,trans-11 CLA

A

rumenic acid

Anticarcinogenic

Produced in mammary gland

from vaccenic acid by delta-9 desaturase

75% to 90% of CLA in milk

129
Q

trans-10,cis-12 CLA

A

Reduction in body fat

Produced in rumen

Significant reduction in milk fat

130
Q

in high fiber diet:

linoleic acid → stearic acid

A

cis9 trans 11

131
Q

in a high grain diet = more energy linoleic acid → stearic acid

A

skips steps goes through trans10cis12

  • Increasing fermentable carbohydrate at the expense of fiber coupled with higher lipid concentrations triggers alternate pathway
  • Alters microbiota leading to production of Trans-10, cis-12 18:2 CLA and trans-10 isomer

•These two isomers inhibit milk fat synthesis in the mammary gland and lead to milk fat depression in dairy cows

132
Q

ways to mess up fermentative digestion

A
  • Excessive fermentation of starch
  • Low pH in rumen or cecum (colon)
  • Production of amines
  • Production of endotoxins
  • Laminitis, rumen parakeratosis, liver abscesses, lung abscesses
  • Laminitis and colic
133
Q

SARA

A

Sub-acute ruminal acidosis (SARA)

from abrupt change in diet

lactic acid increases, pH drops and fermentation is disturbed

134
Q

ideal pH for microbs

A

6.6-6.8 (range 5.5 to 7)

pH > 6 – Fiber digesters; pH< 6 – amylolytic digesters;

pH – 5.5 lactic acid producers

(opportunists) – dysbiosis in the rumen microbiota (SARA, frothy bloat)

135
Q

___ refers to abdominal pain and is the consequence of all forms of gastrointestinal diseases or problems

A

Colic

136
Q

About 10-11% of horses suffer from colic and about ___% cases are fatal – approximately $16 million loses due to colic

A

11

137
Q

Dietary factors – high grain, low fiber, ___feed changes, moldy feeds are some major causes for colic

A

abrupt

138
Q

Changes in ___ can lead to torsion, twisting, ulcers and uterine pain

A

microbiota

139
Q

what happens to microbes during colic

A

Overall we found that healthy commensals were reduced and bacteria with unknown functions have increased.

140
Q

best way to reduce colic

A
  • Gradual adaptation to higher grain diets–Over a 1 to 2 weeks to increase concentrate feeding–Highest risk of GI upset in horse is 7 days post-increased grain feeding
  • Equine maximal grain rate – 0.4% of BW/meal, usually two meals/day
  • Cow – <= 60% of total diet DM as concentrate

22 spring: Physiology (34 decks)

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