Development of cognitive processes - CD2

Question 1

What are information processing frameworks?

Answer 1

the models which describe the flow of information through the cognitive system

Question 2

What are the basic assumptions of the information processing perspective? (4)

Answer 2

• limit to how much info we can process at once
• machinery for bringing in physical + conceptual info (inputs)
• machinery for processing information
• processed info is used for something (output)

Question 3

What kind of theory is information processing? (2)

Answer 3

constructivist
continuous changes in knowledge leading to incremental changes in knowledge (not discrete categories)

Question 4

How does information processing theory relate to empiricist viewpoints?

Answer 4

conceptual knowledge is created through perceptual experiences

Question 5

How does information processing theory relate to nativist viewpoints?

Answer 5

knowledge in nativist viewpoints still can be constructed through perception, it’s just that it isn’t the only way

Question 6

What are 3 methods of studying memory in preverbal infants?

Answer 6

• visual paired comparison task
• habituation task
• operant conditioning task

Question 7

What happens in a visual paired comparison task? Why does this test memory?

Answer 7

familiarise with a stimulus then show them a new stimulus next to the old stimulus and see if they look at it for longer
they must have a representation of the old stimulus to recognise the other one as new

Question 8

What happens in a habituation task? Why does this test memory?

Answer 8

familiarise to a stimulus while measuring looking time (should decrease) then show a new stimulus and see if looking time is different to the end of the familiarisation phase
must have stored old stimulus if they recognise that the novel one is new

Question 9

What happens in an operant conditioning task? Why does this test memory? (give all the phases)

Answer 9

• string on their foot
• phase 1: string doesn’t move mobile (baseline kicking)
• phase 2: string moves mobile
• phase 3: string doesn’t move mobile
• delay
• phase 4: string doesn’t move mobile
• memory if kicking in phase 3 > phase 1 and/or kicking in phase 4 is similar to phase 3

Question 10

What are 3 key processing operations for memory?

Answer 10

encoding, retention and retrieval

Question 11

How is retention tested in infants and children? (2)

Answer 11

• operant conditioning task (cot one)
• train task when older (push button for train to move)

Question 12

What do results of tests for retention show?

Answer 12

there is a continued increase in retention time with age

Question 13

What factors can affect encoding? (2)

Answer 13

time, stimulus complexity

Question 14

What test and results show how time can affect encoding?

Answer 14

• visual comparison task with different familiarisation times
• 12 month olds can encode in 10 seconds, 6 month olds need at least 20 seconds

Question 15

What test and results show how stimulus complexity can affect encoding?

Answer 15

• visual comparison task with levels of complex stimuli
• 2-3 month olds = simple forms
• 4 month olds = more complex images
• 5-6 month olds = most complex

Question 16

How can time and stimulus complexity work together to affect encoding?

Answer 16

5-6 month olds need different amounts of time for different levels of complexity
- simple = 4 seconds
- more complex = 17 seconds
- most complex = 20-25 seconds

Question 17

How can you test retrieval and what do results show?

Answer 17

use grades of cues
older infants can use more novel cues to aid retrieval

Question 18

What are some common memory strategies? (3)

Answer 18

• rehearsal (repeat info)
• organisation (explicitly categorise with something you know)
• elaboration (create a narrative)

Question 19

How do memory strategies change with age?

Answer 19

• use more strategies over time
• learn more about your memory and how it works

Question 20

What is meta-memory?

Answer 20

you are able to select strategies to help you optimise your performance in different contexts and different events

Question 21

What is short term memory made up of? (3)

Answer 21

central executive, phonological loop, visual-spatial sketchpad

Question 22

What different dimensions is long term memory considered on? (4)

Answer 22

• explicit/implicit
• declarative/procedural
• episodic/semantic
• autobiographical

Question 23

How can children with learning difficulties be used to show how the STM system works?

Answer 23

they have difficulties in different aspects so it can’t be one system that always works together

Question 24

How can we show evidence of procedural memories in infants?

Answer 24

eye tracking shows that they will look where a cup is supposed to go before an adult moves it there (e.g. to the mouth)

Question 25

How can declarative memories be measured in infants? What are the results?

Answer 25

imitation task
9 month olds don’t imitate action sequences correctly, 10 month olds do

Question 26

In what order do episodic, autobiographical and semantic memories seem to develop?

Answer 26

semantic, episodic, autobiographical

Question 27

What is source monitoring and what can we use it to test?

Answer 27

• keeping track of how you know things
• distinguish between semantic and episodic memories

Question 28

When does source monitoring seem to develop and what does this suggest?

Answer 28

• between 3-4 years
• episodic memory emerges after semantic

Question 29

What is found in the treasure hunt study for episodic memory? (2)

Answer 29

for 3 year olds, more delay = less memory of needing the key for the chest
for 4 year olds, delay didn’t matter

Question 30

What is orienting?

Answer 30

directing attention to a particular region

Question 31

What is evidence for orienting?

Answer 31

tasks that involve eye gaze shifting show evidence of early orienting

Question 32

What is alerting?

Answer 32

arousal of the attentional system through a cue

Question 33

What are 2 components of alerting?

Answer 33

• types of cues
• sensitivity to cues

Question 34

When do dyadic and triadic joint attention happen?

Answer 34

• dyadic < 6 months (exchange facial expressions)
• triadic - 6 months following gaze cues, 8-9 months follow pointing cues

Question 35

How does sensitivity to cues change over time? (3)

Answer 35

• improves over years at school
• 8 and 10 year olds have a similar validity effect to adults
• but they are slower at responding

Question 36

What are 3 executive functions in attention development?

Answer 36

inhibition, updating working memory, flexibility

Question 37

What tasks can be used to examine inhibition? (2)

Answer 37

the stroop task and the gambling task

Question 38

What is found in the gambling task when choosing between an average gain or an average loss?

Answer 38

4 year olds could inhibit their dominant response and pick the average gain, 3 year olds could not

Question 39

How do we measure working memory and how does it change over time?

Answer 39

• number of objects remembered, then span tasks as they get older
• capacity and manipulation improve over development

Question 40

How can flexibility/shifting be tested and what is found?

Answer 40

teddy asks cards to be sorted a different way
- 3-4 year olds do well on simple tasks
- struggle on complex tasks until around 5-6 years old