Development of cognitive processes - CD2 Flashcards
What are information processing frameworks?
the models which describe the flow of information through the cognitive system
What are the basic assumptions of the information processing perspective? (4)
- limit to how much info we can process at once
- machinery for bringing in physical + conceptual info (inputs)
- machinery for processing information
- processed info is used for something (output)
What kind of theory is information processing? (2)
constructivist
continuous changes in knowledge leading to incremental changes in knowledge (not discrete categories)
How does information processing theory relate to empiricist viewpoints?
conceptual knowledge is created through perceptual experiences
How does information processing theory relate to nativist viewpoints?
knowledge in nativist viewpoints still can be constructed through perception, it’s just that it isn’t the only way
What are 3 methods of studying memory in preverbal infants?
- visual paired comparison task
- habituation task
- operant conditioning task
What happens in a visual paired comparison task? Why does this test memory?
familiarise with a stimulus then show them a new stimulus next to the old stimulus and see if they look at it for longer
they must have a representation of the old stimulus to recognise the other one as new
What happens in a habituation task? Why does this test memory?
familiarise to a stimulus while measuring looking time (should decrease) then show a new stimulus and see if looking time is different to the end of the familiarisation phase
must have stored old stimulus if they recognise that the novel one is new
What happens in an operant conditioning task? Why does this test memory? (give all the phases)
- string on their foot
- phase 1: string doesn’t move mobile (baseline kicking)
- phase 2: string moves mobile
- phase 3: string doesn’t move mobile
- delay
- phase 4: string doesn’t move mobile
- memory if kicking in phase 3 > phase 1 and/or kicking in phase 4 is similar to phase 3
What are 3 key processing operations for memory?
encoding, retention and retrieval
How is retention tested in infants and children? (2)
- operant conditioning task (cot one)
- train task when older (push button for train to move)
What do results of tests for retention show?
there is a continued increase in retention time with age
What factors can affect encoding? (2)
time, stimulus complexity
What test and results show how time can affect encoding?
- visual comparison task with different familiarisation times
- 12 month olds can encode in 10 seconds, 6 month olds need at least 20 seconds
What test and results show how stimulus complexity can affect encoding?
- visual comparison task with levels of complex stimuli
- 2-3 month olds = simple forms
- 4 month olds = more complex images
- 5-6 month olds = most complex
How can time and stimulus complexity work together to affect encoding?
5-6 month olds need different amounts of time for different levels of complexity
- simple = 4 seconds
- more complex = 17 seconds
- most complex = 20-25 seconds
How can you test retrieval and what do results show?
use grades of cues
older infants can use more novel cues to aid retrieval
What are some common memory strategies? (3)
- rehearsal (repeat info)
- organisation (explicitly categorise with something you know)
- elaboration (create a narrative)
How do memory strategies change with age?
- use more strategies over time
- learn more about your memory and how it works
What is meta-memory?
you are able to select strategies to help you optimise your performance in different contexts and different events
What is short term memory made up of? (3)
central executive, phonological loop, visual-spatial sketchpad
What different dimensions is long term memory considered on? (4)
- explicit/implicit
- declarative/procedural
- episodic/semantic
- autobiographical
How can children with learning difficulties be used to show how the STM system works?
they have difficulties in different aspects so it can’t be one system that always works together
How can we show evidence of procedural memories in infants?
eye tracking shows that they will look where a cup is supposed to go before an adult moves it there (e.g. to the mouth)
How can declarative memories be measured in infants? What are the results?
imitation task
9 month olds don’t imitate action sequences correctly, 10 month olds do
In what order do episodic, autobiographical and semantic memories seem to develop?
semantic, episodic, autobiographical
What is source monitoring and what can we use it to test?
- keeping track of how you know things
- distinguish between semantic and episodic memories
When does source monitoring seem to develop and what does this suggest?
- between 3-4 years
- episodic memory emerges after semantic
What is found in the treasure hunt study for episodic memory? (2)
for 3 year olds, more delay = less memory of needing the key for the chest
for 4 year olds, delay didn’t matter
What is orienting?
directing attention to a particular region
What is evidence for orienting?
tasks that involve eye gaze shifting show evidence of early orienting
What is alerting?
arousal of the attentional system through a cue
What are 2 components of alerting?
- types of cues
- sensitivity to cues
When do dyadic and triadic joint attention happen?
- dyadic < 6 months (exchange facial expressions)
- triadic - 6 months following gaze cues, 8-9 months follow pointing cues
How does sensitivity to cues change over time? (3)
- improves over years at school
- 8 and 10 year olds have a similar validity effect to adults
- but they are slower at responding
What are 3 executive functions in attention development?
inhibition, updating working memory, flexibility
What tasks can be used to examine inhibition? (2)
the stroop task and the gambling task
What is found in the gambling task when choosing between an average gain or an average loss?
4 year olds could inhibit their dominant response and pick the average gain, 3 year olds could not
How do we measure working memory and how does it change over time?
- number of objects remembered, then span tasks as they get older
- capacity and manipulation improve over development
How can flexibility/shifting be tested and what is found?
teddy asks cards to be sorted a different way
- 3-4 year olds do well on simple tasks
- struggle on complex tasks until around 5-6 years old
