Development (Ch. 11) Exam 3 Flashcards
developmental psychology
examines how people change through time (infancy - old age)
questions of developmental psychology?
Q: does development occur in stages of continuous?
A: both
Q: nature or nurture?
A: naturation, genetically determined biological processes which lead to orderly growth require building blocks from the environment
cross-sectional design
compares participants of different ages to each other at one point in time
(ex. 6-month baby vs. 12-month baby, changes can be attributed to a change in age, but with older people and greater age differences, hard to tell)
drawbacks of cross-sectional design
-hard to attribute change directly to age
-cohort effect- differences due to members of an age group sharing a set of common life experiences
longitudinal design
tracks participants at different times and sees the difference between
(ex. tracking a single group of infants from 6 months to age 2)
benefits and drawbacks of longitudinal design
+ : confident that people are changing over time
- : requires more time and resources, danger of attrition (people withdrawing before the study is completed)
sequential design
tracks multiple age groups across multiple time points
(ex. compares reading skills of 40-year-old vs. 50-year-old, then test the group again in 50 years)
benefits of a sequential design
-increases confidence that the observed changes are because of development and not cohort effect
-takes less time than longitudinal
conception of an egg
- mature egg released from ovary
- one sperm meets egg and fuses, all other sperm then shut out
- nuclei of egg and sperm fuse to form a zygote (new combo of 23 chromosomes)
germinal stage
- zygote cells multiply creating a blastocyst, which is implanted in the uterus (most don’t make it this far and get flushed out)
embryonic stage
(2-8 weeks)
5. placenta forms (the channel between mother and embryo)
- cells begin to differentiate
- endoderm layer (gut), mesoderm layer (skeletal and voluntary muscles), and ectoderm (nervous system and outer skin) form
fetal stage
(9-36 weeks) “fetus”
6. by 17th week ears begin to function, by 26th week, eyes open
“full-term”
(37 weeks)
7. developed enough for life outside the womb
how does a brain develop in an embryo?
rapidly develops starting a month after conception
1. neural tube
2. neural migration
neural tube
(1 month after conception, during the embryonic stage)
STEP #1: 3 pts develop (brainstem, cerebellum, spinal cord)
- initially no distinction between cells and types
neural migration
STEP #3: cells differentiate into neurons and glia
- glia guidewires & chemicals move neurons into position
- neurons organize into two layers (inside and outside) based on the time of arrival
- genes provide a “wiring diagram” to help neurons migrate
what happens when genes and chromosomes are disrupted at conception?
- if specific genes are disrupted: sickle-cell, cystic fibrosis, PKU
- extra copy of chromosome 21: down syndrome, delay in motor skills, intellectual disability
what happens when there are disruptions in the prenatal environment?
teratogens: environmental agents that interfere with healthy developing fetuses (mother and baby share placenta so travels from mother to baby) (ex. lead, mercury, carbon monoxide, etc.)
fetal alcohol syndrome
alcohol during pregnancy leads to developmental disorders, psychological problems and physical abnormalities
newborn reflexes
(automatic motor responses triggered by sensory stimulus)
- automatically open mouth when cheek touched as if expecting to suck nipple for milk
- grasp hand when touched (probably inherited from apes carrying babies on their back)
what developmental insights can we gain from newborn reflexes?
recognize mothers voice bc when they speak, babies tend to suck harder
newborn head, eye, facial movement control
- gaze longer at human faces
- newborns can imitate facial expressions (instructors made funny faces and babies could replicate)
habituation/ dishabituation
habituation - lower response to repeated stimuli (get bored).
dishabituation - greater response to a new stimulus
checkerboard habituation study
shower babies checkerboard of a single style for a while until looking time decreased, then showed a new pattern and looking time increased
baby motor development
- emerges from head to feet (can control hands before feet, so can catch themselves when they fall)
- emerges from center of body outwards (core strength before finer motor skills)
what is the impact of culture on baby development
(ex. some Caribbean cultures massage infants which can lead to them learning to walk faster more quickly)
(ex. sometimes put babies on their backs to sleep which can lead to slower motor development)
- simply need opportunities to practice
violation of expectation method study
a baby is shown an object moving in a radial pathway on a table. A block is then added such that you would expect the object to stop at the block, but the babies are presented with two possible outcomes. Either the object passes through the block (false floor and it falls in) which is impossible or it stops at the block which is possible. When it sees the possible action looking time doesn’t change, but when they see the impossible action looking time increases.
social referencing
relying on facial expressions of caretakers or other adults as a source of information on how to react. (but specific to humans, study had claw pick up object but only reacted when human picked up object)
what does separation anxiety indicate about an infant?
that they formed attachment (emotional bond) with their caretakers
what does separation anxiety look like in ducks?
imprinting (attached to organisms that they first see)
are infants attached to mothers because they provide food?
NO. mothers provide milk, but not the sole reason they are attached.
are infants attached to mothers because they provide gentle comfort?
YES. (Harlow monkey study) monkeys formed attached to gauze pads in their cage and were distressed when they were removed.
are infants more attached to food providers or gentle comfort providers?
comfort. (Harlow monkey study) monkeys were raised with artificial metal monkey with food and soft fabric covered monkey without food. The monkeys went to the first one for food, but clung to the second when scared
what happens when humans have no opportunities for attachment?
their development becomes stunted. (ex. because of a birthing mandate there were a lot of kids in Romanian orphanages) they had delays in physical, motor, and cognitive development because little human comfort
strange situation test
(To understand different attachments) caretakers and child go into a room full of toys, a stranger comes in, the caretaker leaves, caretaker returns, both leave, then both adults return
secure attachment
use caretakers as a secure base (minor distress when caretakers leave and enthusiasm when they return)
insecure attachment
caretakers aren’t used as base and newborns aren’t reassured when they return
insecure/ avoidant & insecure/ ambivalent
insecure/ avoidant
distant with caretakers present and usually ignore them when they return (unruffled on surface but increased HR when caretakers leave and stays high when they return)
insecure/ ambivalent
babies don’t explore and they’re upset when caretakers leave and ambivalent when they return (cry to be picked up them kick to get down)
why do babies have different attachment styles?
temperament (of infants) - pattern of emotional behavior and this behavior is impacted by their genetics
what is the impact of infant irritability?
lower parental responsiveness
childhood
time between the end of infancy and the start of adolecence
symbolic representation
use of words, sounds, gestures, visual images, or objects to represent other things
when does symbolic representation begin, according to Piaget?
the preoperational period (2-6 or 7 years old)
symbolic representation study
showed 2 1/2- 4 year olds a scale model of a room, children watched as researchers hid a mini toy in model and they were told a larger version was hidden somewhere in the real room.
3 year olds could find it but 2 1/2 year olds couldn’t
(HOWEVER) when out of reach with a glass partition, 2 1/2 year olds were able to see it (as a symbol)
operations
imagining how things (ex. people or objects) might be different than what they are or imagining the result of an event without seeing it (multiple schemas)
concrete operational period (Piaget)
developmental ages from 7-12 when child can transfer between interrelated schemas to solve complex problems
Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural view of development
child’s mind grows through interactions with the social environment
scaffolding
actively challenging and supporting children as they attempt things outside of their current skills
(ex. teaching kids how to tie their shoe vs. doing it for them)
authoritarian parents
low responsiveness, very demanding, low emotional support, strict rules
expect absolute obedience, if not will respond with severe punishment
what is the impact of authoritarian parenting on children?
obedient towards adults but low academic performance and self-esteem
permissive parents
high responsiveness, not very demanding, warm and attentive, few rules
indulge in child’s wishes, rate punishment and require little of their kids
what is the impact of permissive parenting on children?
high self-confidence but low self-control
authoritative parents
high responsiveness, very demanding, clear rules and structure but explain the reasoning, rules can change and open to discussion
give kids responsibility and coaching which promotes maturity
what is the impact of authoritative parents?
a study predicted greater academic achievement and problem-solving
disengaged parents
not responsive, not demanding, few rules/ responsibilities, insensitive to child’s needs
whatis the impact of disengaged parents?
low academic outcomes, high rates of depression
what are the problems with using parenting styles to consider future outcomes?
they’re not absolute and some parts of it not equal across people
- not the same across genders and race
- data is correlational
however, parenting styles still matter, study showed that training authoritative parenting styles can lead to better outcomes
adolescence
period of transition between childhood and adulthood
what changes in adolescent brains?
- burst of synaptic growth
- second wave of synaptic pruning to discard less useful connections and increase more useful ones
- (ongoing myelination leads to greater neurotransmission)
why are adolescents considered more reckless?
pre-frontal cortex isn’t developed enough yet, so harder to override impulses
the limbic system (regulates emotion) goes through more change which increases the perception of reward
puberty
period of sexual maturation where men and women are capable of reproduction
- hormonal release leads to changes in primary sex characteristics (body parts for reproduction, ovaries, testes, etc.)
- changes in secondary sex characteristics (nonproductive body structures: hips, torso, voices, body hair)
- genetics, diet, and exercise impact the timing of puberty
what is the impact of early puberty?
(F): greater psychological problems, social anxiety, embarrassment (lower impact when better relationship with parents and stable community)
(M): greater social status because they become bigger and stronger (but can lead to greater impulsivity and alcohol use)
Kohlberg’s moral reasoning theory
3 stages
pre-conventional stage
(before age 9)
- self-interest and obeying rules to avoid punishment and gain reward
conventional stage
(early adolescence)
- something wrong because hurts someone or violates a law
post-conventional stage
(later adolescence)
- moral judgement from a sense of principles/ ideals
Heinz dilemma
dilemma used for Kohlberg’s oral reasoning theory
- the dilemma is a life-saving drug that’s really expensive and he tries to get money from the community but it isn’t enough to pay for them so he steals it
why is Kohlberg’s theory correct?
a study found that people are more likely to cheat if reasoned on the pre-conventional level
why is Kohlberg’s theory incorrect?
- greater representation of men, women see morality increase with compassion (but based on “test” accounts women as less moral)
- not the same for different cultures (ex. in a small Turkish village, knows neighbor so they would reason with pre-conventional stage bc personal, but Kohlberg would say they’re less moral)
social clock
norms of timing of milestones in adulthood (ex. marriage, retirement, etc.)
question of adulthood (Erik Erikson)
finding love vs. engaging in meaningful work
struggle for intimacy
want to build close relationship but societal pressures for social clock (marriage, etc.)
(Studies): happier after marriage but also because happier people tend to get married, greater well-being of married people when marriage is culturally important in that country
struggle to contribute something that will create an impact on future generations
(Studies): people who feel generative report feeling happier
seek generativity with meaningful work and/ or having kids (also evolutionary advantage, continue humanity)
does parenting really make people happier?
mixed results, depends on how respond to stress
- men more likely to be happier with parenting than women because more demands on women
- parents are happiest before children and once empty nesters till one of them dies
can tech apps/ tools help with memory?
little evidence that it can help with preserving intellectual thinking
what question do old people grapple with?
what has my life meant?
