D.4 - Future Resillience And Adaptation

Question 1

What are geophysical hazard trends

Answer 1

• Some fluctuations but there is an overall upwards trend in number of hazards per ear
• Increasing danger to humans caused by EQs and volcanic eruptions
• Especially as many EQ-prone regions are becoming more densely populated
• Activity levels seem to be rising at several supervolcanoes with eruptions of VEI 7-8
• E.g. several Icelandic volcanoes are showing signs of inflation, indicating pressure from magma upwellings beneath the surface building upwards
• The longer between hazard events, the larger the next will be
• This is as forces build up within a rock mass, building up stress through their resistance, eventually released as they violently snap into new positions

Question 2

What are 2 reasons why frequency of hazards may change over time

Answer 2

• orbit fluctuation
• climate change

Question 3

Why can orbit fluctuation change the frequency of hazards over time

Answer 3

Earth’s orbit around the sun can fluctuate Its rotation wobbles slightly as the location of its magnetic poles migrate
This may affect the strength of its magnetic attraction with the sun and moon
Could alter the circulation of liquid rock in the mantle and its pressure, increasing the frequency of EQs volcanic eruptions

Question 4

Why can climate change affect the frequency of hazards of time

Answer 4

Isostatic readjustment occurs as land rises, due to the melting of ice caps that previously weighed it down from thousands of years ago
Could place stress on the earth’s crust
Similar effect with contemporary climate change
As ice caps shed ice mass, the release of weight allows crust to bend and rise upwards
Allows changes in currents within mantle to occur, which might make it easier for magma to rise to the surface

Question 5

What are 4 indicators of imminent eruptions and earthquakes

Answer 5

• seismometers
• tilt meters
• laser beams
• animal behaviour

Question 6

What is a seismometer

Answer 6

Measure earth movements and tremors

Question 7

What’s a tiltmeter

Answer 7

Measures ground deformation and earth swelling

Question 8

What’s a laser beams

Answer 8

Provide accurate data on tiny earth movements along fault lines due to underground pressures

Question 9

How can animal behaviour suggest hazards

Answer 9

Animals can behave strangely before a hazard event occurs
e.g. snakes don’t go in holes, swans don’t go near water, pandas scream

Question 10

What are 3 indicators of a volcanic eruption

Answer 10

• ash/cinder deposit is on volcano slopes
• technology
• GPS monitoring

Question 11

How does ash/cinder deposit on volcanic slopes suggest imminent eruptions

Answer 11

Can indicate frequency of eruptions for an individual volcano and predict the likelihood of an imminent eruption
Composite cone volcanoes are harder to predict than cinder cones, due to the complexity of their eruptions

Question 12

how can technology suggest a eruption

Answer 12

An array of sensitive instruments on volcanoes can monitor its activity after initial signs of activity, like earth tremors and inflation
With precise data, the timing and magnitude of imminent eruptions can be accurately predicted

Question 13

How can gps monitoring suggest a eruption

Answer 13

Looking at data from receivers placed around a volcano over a period of time can suggest whether it has moved or changed

Question 14

What are 4 indicators of a earthquake

Answer 14

• changes in ground water
• increasing electricity concudctivity of rocks
• release of random gas from ground into atmosphere
• general

Question 15

How does changes in ground water suggest a earthquake

Answer 15

Groundwater can flow into newly opened up underground cracks

Question 16

How does increasing electrical conductivity of rocks suggest a earthquake

Answer 16

Can suggest increasing moisture content of the rocks

Question 17

How does release of random gad from ground into atmosphere suggest a earthquake

Answer 17

Escapes from faults as rocks under pressure begin to crack

Question 18

How can vernal things suggest a earthquake

Answer 18

Usually include combination of indicators including ground inflation, land tilting, or clusters of tremors

Question 19

what is a the only indicator of mass movement

Answer 19

Weather forecast
Can help predict landslides
e.g. increased rainfall, monsoons, looking at ground saturation

Question 20

What are 6 ways to adapt to hazard

Answer 20

• electronic warning systems
• technology - shakealertIA
• insurance policy
• preparing homes to withstand events
• land use zoning
• hazard maps

Question 21

Why can electronic warning system help adaptation to hazards

Answer 21

Motion detectors can give residents prior warning before an EQ hits
Allows evacuation of people from significant danger points
e.g. in Japan, signals are automatically sent to braking systems on bullet trains to slow them down whenever shaking starts

Question 22

Why can technology help adaption to hazard

Answer 22

Uses network of seismic sensors to detect EQs and dispatch warnings to smartphones
Forewarns of impending EQs to allow people to act in a safe way to protect themselves
Estimates both location and magnitude
However, not completely accurate, and there is a notification threshold - only informs of EQs over a certain magnitude, not all possible shaking

Question 23

Why can insurance policies help adaption to hazards

Answer 23

Cover for an amount of risk or liability
Helps consumers recover financially from unexpected events
Increases resilience by improving financial security and providing compensation

Lower cost in low-risk areas
Can cover living expenses elsewhere while homes are repaired
Can have psychological benefits by providing peace of mind and avoiding anxiety

However, can be costly in high-risk areas
Not everyone can afford
Not offered in all areas
Can be denied if the risk is too great
Still costs a high deductible which might outweigh the potential costs of damages

Question 24

Why can preparing homes to withstand hazard event help adaption to hazards

Answer 24

Maintaining emergency food/battery supplies
Having electrical generators on hand

Question 25

How can land use zoning help adaption top hazards

Answer 25

Can attempt to separate people from known hazards
Imposes restrictions in high-risk locations
Can prohibit residences schools hospitals on vulnerable land
Can restrict construction in such areas, requiring structural strengthening, firefighting services, and certain access/exit designs

Question 26

How can using hazard maps help adaption to hazards

Answer 26

Considers proximity to plate boundaries/faults, seismic history, geology (e.g. bedrock is more stable than alluvial deposits), gradient, and possible secondary hazards (e.g. tsunamis near coast, landslides near hills)

Once possible hazards are known, adjustments can be made:
Prohibiting building where too dangerous
Create zones where only low value uses are permitted, like farming
Protect, evacuate, or rebuild vulnerable areas to new building standards

Allows govt’s to prepare for hazards and enforce zoning/planning regulations

However, can cause loss of value of certain properties and prevent them from getting insurance

Signs and instructions put up in warning zones can also cause loss in aesthetic value and put off tourists

Question 27

What are 7 pre vent management strategies for mass movement

Answer 27

• artificial structures
• vegetation
• diverting streams
• installing pipes
• excavations
• landslide hazard maps
• subsidence management

Question 28

How is installing artificial structures a stratagie for facing mass movement

Answer 28

Can be built to prevent major landslides
Rocks can be bolted together to make rockfalls less likely
Specially designed poles can be built into slopes to secure them

Question 29

How can cegitiation prevent mass movement

Answer 29

Can be planted to bind the soil

Question 30

How can diverting streams prevent mass movement

Answer 30

Surface streams flowing across a slope lubricate and erode the surface
Can be diverted to flow across more stable lands

Question 31

How can installing pipes prevent mass movement

Answer 31

Can drain saturated soil and ease pressure from groundwater

Question 32

How can excavations prevent mass movement

Answer 32

Can change the shape of a slope, making it less steep and less vulnerable to sliding

Question 33

How can landslide hazard maps prevent landslides

Answer 33

Identify areas prone to slope failures by examining historical record of the area e.g. considering slope stability, the scale and speed of a potential slide, potential economic losses, the affected population, and property damage

Typically categorise slopes according to hazard risk
Permanent avoidance - settlement is forbidden
Temporary avoidance - only seasonal use
Qualified use - land-use is restricted to low value activities, may need special building standards
Unrestricted use - stable, no risk of instability

Question 34

How can subsidence management prevent mass movement

Answer 34

Regulating and restricting mining
Ensuring underground mines are properly constructed, with reinforced structures
Tracking flow of underground streams and seepage
Constructing flexible buildings to withstand ground movements

Question 35

What are 3 pre event management strategies for earthquakes

Answer 35

• building on suitable ground
• using the right building material
• constructing solid buildings

Question 36

How does building on suitable grounds prevent the effects from earthquakes

Answer 36

e.g. building on hard rock foundations
Best to avoid building on sand and silt as they become jelly-like and cause buildings to sink when the ground is shaken

Question 37

How some using the right building materials prevent effects from earthquakes

Answer 37

Rigid materials will not disintegrate under pressure (e.g. reinforced concrete, steel)
Flexible materials will bend but not break during an EQ (e.g. timber)
e.g. bricks are less capable of withstanding shocks, so if used, they need additional support with vertical beams

Question 38

How does constructing solid buildings prevent effects felt from earthquakes

Answer 38

Should have strong foundations, load-bearing walls, strongly attached roofs, and reinforced walls (e.g. steel rods in concrete walls, wise mesh cemented into brick walls)

Question 39

how have japan built buildings to prevent effects from earthquakes

Answer 39

Build skvscrapers to earn more revenue from limited space
Japanese engineers ensure these tall buildings are resistant to damage from EQs
Widened bases - encourages stability
Foundations of fluid/rubber/springs - enables movement during EQs without being brittle
Counter-weights - employed at top of buildings to offset shocks from EQs

Question 40

What are 4 pre event management strategies for tsunamis

Answer 40

• tsunami walls
• buoy networks
• warning stations
• high ground eviction areas

Question 41

How does tsunami walls prevent the effects of a tsunami

Answer 41

Reflect wave energy back to sea, or absorb it However, block natural view of oceans and block view of any potential tsunamis

Question 42

How does buoy network help prevent the effects of a tsunami

Answer 42

Establishing network of buoys in ocean can track movement of tsunamis to give advance warning of tsunamis approaching

Question 43

How does warning stations help prevent the effects from a tsunami

Answer 43

Can be set up on land with sirens to notify residents of the need to evacuate

Question 44

How does high ground evacuation areas help prevent the effects Ron a tsunami

Answer 44

People can assemble there safely, with clearly marked access routes

Question 45

What are 4 pre event management strategies for a volcanic eruption

Answer 45

• hazard maps and disaster plans
• construction
• diverting lava flow
• warning visitors

Question 46

How can hazard maps and disaster plans help reduce the effects of a volcano

Answer 46

Can be developed and distributed to residents in threatened areas
Include instructions about potential hazards and actions to take in the event of eruption

Question 47

How can construction help reduce the effect of a volcano

Answer 47

Buildings should have strong, steep roofs to withstand the weight of volcanic ash and minimise the quantities that accumulate

Question 48

How can diverting lava flow reduce the effects of a volcano

Answer 48

Walls and troughs can be built along the anticipated paths of lava flows to divert them away from property
However, difficult to implement effectively as it is difficult to predict lava flows accurately
Some areas of active volcanic activity

Question 49

How can warning visitors reduce the effects of a volcano

Answer 49

Some areas of active volcanic activity become tourist attractions
Visitors can be warned of dangers and encouraged to remain in areas considered to be safe

Question 50

What is hazard response

Answer 50

• Reponses to hazards are often based on partial and selective knowledge and understandings
• Responses to hazards fall into three phases

Question 51

What is pre hazard response

Answer 51

• Identifying and analysing the potential of hazards
• Providing warning of the developing threat
• Ascertaining the vulnerability of the community
• Prevention and mitigation involve preventing or minimising the impact of threats
o E.g. land-use zoning
• Preparation includes alerting and raising awareness of the threat, allocating responsibilities, and stockpiling essential food/equipment

Question 52

What are types of hazard response

Answer 52

• Occurs during or immediately after a hazard event (Relief —> Rehabilitation stage)
• Ranges from panic and psychological paralysis to implementation of coordinated emergency measures
• Initial response may include:
o Migration or evacuation
• Disease outbreaks and medical problems
• Addressing the cause and impact of the hazard
• Assisting affected people
• Minimising the impact of repeated events
• Responses can fall into two categories
• Biomedical responses include death and injuries
• Psychosocial responses include the ways people react to the hazard event, such as:
o Worry and anxiety
Grieving or blaming
• Losing community cohesion
• Rushing in to offer aid and assistance to the needy
• Psychosocial management strategies can be performed by gov’t and aid agencies, like:
- Providing emergency food supplies
- Erecting temporary shelter/accommodation
- Locating survivors
- Working to re-establish basic services

Question 53

How can drone be used for hazard response

Answer 53

• Can locate survivors and assess damage
• Can find survivors by detecting wi-fi signals from smartphones or using sound/motion detectors
• Creates a 3D map to find entry points and secure lifelines
• Primary goal is to deliver food/water/supplies
• Can provide aerial views to show the extent of damage
• Shows which areas need the most help, blocked roads, and collapsed buildings
• Saves time and allows for accuracy

Question 54

What is post hazard response

Answer 54

• Comprises the medium or long-term actions taken to repair major damage and minimise suffering from possible repeat events (Rehabilitation —> Reconstruction stage)

• Recovery includes cleaning up and repairing damage, ongoing medical treatment, counselling victims, financial and legal support, revision of hazard analyses, and evaluation of prevention and mitigation measures

• Responses can still be classified as biomedical and psychosocial when considering the longer-term aftermath

• Biomedical responses - deaths and injuries may continue after the initial hazard event, as poor hygiene allows disease to spread, and crude medical facilities struggle to cope with the scale of injuries sustained

• Psychosocial management strategies are designed to restore or improve QoL, and stabilise the environment to mitigate the impact of a similar future hazard event, including:
• Building permanent structures
• Restoring infrastructure facilities like piped water and reliable electricity
• Stabilising unstable slopes that were disrupted

Question 55

What are the 3 stages of the post event life cycle

Answer 55

1. Relief - Starts immediately
   Efforts made to provide food, water, clothing, shelter, and medical care to the affected Stop the continued loss/disruption directly related to event
   e.g. collapse of damaged buildings, spread of fire and disease
2. Rehabilitation - Requires accurate assessment of needs and carefully coordinated resource planning
   Aims to restore physical and community structures to at least a temporary return to normality
   e.g. replacing mass shelter with temporary housing, transferring injured from field hospitals to regular ones, making
3. Reconstruction - Permanent changes made to restore QoL and economic stability
   Depends on the need to reduce vulnerability, the desire to increase self-reliance, and the overriding goal of restoring normality ASAP
   Speed and efficiency of recovery can vary according to type/magnitude of hazard event and availability of contingency planning for disasters
   Can be helped by int’| relief agencies like Oxfam and Red Cross

Question 56

How is it difficult to reconstruct Haiti

Answer 56

Following the earthquake (see page 188), plans were discussed for the rescue, rehabilitation and reconstruction of Haiti. Reconstructing Haiti is a challenge to the international community, which has failed over decades to lift the island state out of poverty, corruption and violence. Between 2000 and 2010, more than $4 billion has been spent to rebuild communities and infrastructure devastated by hurricanes, floods and landslides, but mismanagement, lack of coordination and attempts by global institutions to use Haiti as an economic tested are believed to have frustrated all efforts. A foreign debt of $1.5 billion has weighed down the economy.

Question 57

What was stage one of Haiti reconstruction

Answer 57

Stage 1: Rescue, 1-10 weeks
The first step was emergency teams working with government and communities to rescue trapped people, clear rubble, and restore water and sanitation to prevent disease. Haiti has a number of self-help groups, NGOs, unions, faith groups, and youth brigades that helped mobilize the emergency effort.

Question 58

What was stage 2 of the reconstruction of Haiti

Answer 58

Stage 2: Assessment, 6-10 weeks
The UN, government donors, the World Bank and charities needed to know what capability remained. Ports, hospitals, houses, schools and roads were in a dreadful state, and there was little piped water or electricity beyond the business area in the capital. Pumps and pipes had been severely damaged, government records had been lost, and teachers, doctors, engineers and professionals had been injured or killed.
The extent of devastation needed to be fully understood in order for recovery to begin. There needed to be a pause, since planning was needed rather than reaction.
Attention was on the capital, Port-au-Prince, but cities like Carrefour and Jamel were also damaged, as well as hundreds of rural communities.

Question 59

What is stage 3 of the reconstruction of Haiti

Answer 59

Stage 3: Coordination, 1-10 weeks
The lesson of the 2004 tsunami and other disasters was that there was a real risk of wasting aid in the race to help. Coordination was needed at national and NGO level. The danger was that institutions could rush in, impose their own ideas, and duplicate efforts. The key, even at this emergency stage, was to think long term.
Expectations also needed to be managed: people living in slums sometimes expect to get palaces after a hazard event has destroyed their home.
When they do not, this can lead to problems.

Question 60

What is stage 4 of the reconstruction of Haiti

Answer 60

Stage 4: Rehabilitation, 1-52 weeks
If, as the Red Cross suggested, 3 million people needed to be rehoused, the infrastructure of the country had to be rebuilt. Haiti’s record of handling money is poor, and it is one of the world’s most aid-dependent states. Hampering its recovery have been deep corruption, a poor civil service, and mistrust between the donor community and the government. Aid agencies have increasingly bypassed government, adding to administrative chaos.

Question 61

What is stage 5 of the reconstruction of Haiti

Answer 61

Stage 5: Reconstruction, 1-40 years
Many countries and aid groups already have major reconstruction programmes in Haiti.
Realistically, it will take decades to rebuild the country. It is likely that the international community will now follow the example of Aceh, where a government agency was set up exclusively to manage the reconstruction; it set up a multi-donor fund to coordinate aid efforts.
Responses are affected by a number of factors.
These include:
• the magnitude of the hazard - the greater the event, the greater the reaction
• the predictability of the event - hurricanes are annual events, whereas earthquakes are more random in time
• the level of wealth - how much the individual household, national government and international organizations can raise
• the perceived level of risk - whether a volcano is likely to erupt or not, and its level on the VEI (volcanic explosivity index)
• the level of information provided in the media - probability of event, size of event, measures to be taken
• the degree of hazard event preparation - building codes, land-use zoning, drills
• personal factors - awareness of alternatives, ability to afford such alternatives, and so on.