Crime and Deviance P2

Question 1

Official Statistics on Ethnicity and Crime:

Answer 1

Q: What do official statistics reveal about ethnicity and crime?

A: Black people are overrepresented in the criminal justice system. For example:

•	Black people make up about 3% of the population but 13% of the prison population.

•	Asians are also overrepresented in arrests compared to their population size.

Q: What are the limitations of official statistics?
A:
• Over-reliance on police data: Reflects police bias and stereotypes rather than actual crime rates.

•	Selective enforcement: Targeted policing in certain communities inflates crime figures for ethnic minorities.

Question 2

Victim Studies:

Answer 2

Q: What do victim studies show about ethnicity and crime?
A:
• Higher rates of victimisation reported among ethnic minorities.
• Most crimes are intra-ethnic (e.g., black-on-black crime).

Q: What are the limitations of victim studies?
A:
• Racial bias: Victims may overidentify offenders as being from a certain ethnic group.

•	Unreported crime: Many incidents go unreported, skewing data.

Question 3

Self-Report Studies:

Answer 3

Q: What do self-report studies reveal about ethnicity and crime?
A:
• White respondents have higher rates of self-reported offending than black and Asian respondents.
• Challenges the stereotype that ethnic minorities commit more crime.

Q: What are the limitations of self-report studies?
A:
• Social desirability bias: Respondents may underreport crimes.
• Small sample sizes: May not accurately represent all ethnic groups.

Question 4

Advantages and Disadvantages of Studies on Ethnicity and Crime:

Answer 4

Advantages:
• Offers a comprehensive understanding of racial disparities.
• Highlights the role of institutional racism.

Disadvantages:
• Overfocus on minorities, potentially ignoring white working-class crime.
• Racial bias in data collection undermines validity.

Question 5

Explaining Stop-and-Search Patterns:

Answer 5

Q: Why are ethnic minorities disproportionately stopped and searched?
A:
• Institutional racism: Macpherson Report (1999) found evidence of racism in the police after the Stephen Lawrence case.

•	Stereotyping: Reiner suggests the police operate with a “canteen culture” of racial bias.

Q: What are the impacts of stop-and-search on ethnic minorities?
A:
• Alienation and distrust of the police.
• Reinforcement of negative stereotypes.

Question 6

Prosecution, Trials, and Conviction Sentencing:

Answer 6

Q: How does ethnicity affect prosecution and sentencing?
A:
• Bowling and Phillips: Ethnic minorities are more likely to be charged but less likely to be convicted due to lack of evidence.

•	Convictions: Black offenders are more likely to receive custodial sentences for the same crimes compared to white offenders.

Q: What are the reasons for disparities?
A:
• Racial bias in judicial decisions.
• Socioeconomic factors influencing legal representation.

Question 7

Social Composition of Ethnicity and Crime:

Answer 7

Q: What role does social composition play in crime rates?
A:
• Ethnic minorities are overrepresented in deprived urban areas with high crime rates.
• Structural factors like unemployment, poverty, and lack of educational opportunities contribute to higher offending rates.

Q: Which sociologists support this view?
A:
• Left Realism (Lea and Young): Relative deprivation, marginalisation, and subcultures explain higher crime rates among ethnic minorities.

Question 8

Neo-Marxist Perspectives on Ethnicity and Crime:

Answer 8

Q: What do neo-Marxists argue about ethnicity and crime?
A:
• Hall et al. (Policing the Crisis): Moral panics around black mugging in the 1970s were used to distract from the economic crisis and justify tougher policing.
• Crime is a socially constructed label to control ethnic minorities.

Q: What are the criticisms of neo-Marxist perspectives?
A:
• Overemphasis on media manipulation.
• Ignores real issues like intra-ethnic violence and victimisation.

Question 9

Crime Victimisation:

Answer 9

Q: What patterns exist in crime victimisation by ethnicity?
A:
• Ethnic minorities are at higher risk of hate crimes and street crime.
• Victimisation often occurs in deprived areas where minorities are concentrated.

Q: What explanations are there for these patterns?
A:
• Structural factors: Poverty and high-risk living environments.
• Cultural vulnerability: Hate crimes targeting minorities.

Question 10

Macpherson Report (1999):

Answer 10

• Institutional racism in policing.

Question 11

Hall et al. (1978):

Answer 11

• Moral panics and policing minorities.

Question 12

Bowling and Phillips (2002):

Answer 12

• Ethnic disparities in arrests and sentencing.

Question 13

Lea and Young (1984):

Answer 13

• Left realism – structural causes of minority offending.

Question 14

Reiner (2000):

Answer 14

• “Canteen culture” in police forces.

Question 15

Media Representation of Crime:

Answer 15

Point: Media over-represents violent and sexual crimes.

Sociologist: Ericson et al. - Found that 45% of media reports focus on violent or sexual crime.

Evaluation:
• Strengths: Explains public fear of crime and distorted perceptions.
• Weaknesses: Doesn’t reflect actual crime statistics (e.g., most crimes are property-related).

Question 16

Moral Panics:

Answer 16

Point: Media creates moral panics by labeling groups as “folk devils.”

Sociologist: Stanley Cohen - Mods and Rockers study (1972).

Evaluation:
• Strengths: Demonstrates how media exaggerates deviance and creates societal reactions.
• Weaknesses: Outdated in the era of social media where moral panics are decentralised.

Question 17

The Cycle of Moral Panic:

Answer 17

1. Folk Devils
2. Warning period
3. Event
4. Impact: labels attached to deviants
5. Inventory: people form a picture
6. Reaction: try to make sense
7. Social control: can amplify the situation, making the fold devils a group with greater solidarity

Question 18

Folk Devils definition:

Answer 18

• Folk devil is a person or group of people who are portrayed in folklore or the media as outsiders and deviant, and who are blamed for crimes or other sorts of social problems.

Question 19

Deviancy Amplification:

Answer 19

Point: Media exaggeration increases deviance through a “self-fulfilling prophecy.”

Sociologist: Leslie Wilkins - Concept of deviancy amplification spiral.

Evaluation:
• Strengths: Supported by interactionist theories (e.g., Becker’s labeling theory).
• Weaknesses: Ignores structural causes of crime, such as poverty or systemic inequality.

Question 20

Fear of Crime:

Answer 20

Point: Media increases fear of crime disproportionately to actual risks.

Sociologist: Gerbner et al. - Cultivation theory; media promotes “mean world syndrome.”

Evaluation:
• Strengths: Highlights the psychological effects of prolonged media exposure.
• Weaknesses: Fear may not translate into actual behavior changes (e.g., Ditton and Duffy suggest the link is overstated).

Question 21

Media as a Cause of Crime:

Answer 21

Point: Media glamorises crime, leading to imitation or copycat behavior.

Sociologist: Albert Bandura - Bobo Doll experiment on observational learning.

Evaluation:
• Strengths: Explains how violent media can influence behavior.
• Weaknesses: Overly deterministic; Livingstone argues most people can differentiate between media and reality.

Question 22

Cybercrime:

Answer 22

Point: Media creates new forms of crime, such as hacking and online fraud.

Sociologist: Wall - Identifies four types of cybercrime (cyber-trespass, cyber-deception, cyber-pornography, and cyber-violence).

Evaluation:
• Strengths: Highlights the evolving nature of crime due to technology.
• Weaknesses: Traditional crimes still dominate official statistics (e.g., burglary, theft).

Question 23

Marxist View on Media and Crime:

Answer 23

Point: Media focuses on working-class crime, ignoring corporate and white-collar crimes.

Sociologist: David Gordon - Selective law enforcement ensures working-class crime is over-represented.

Evaluation:
• Strengths: Highlights ideological control by the ruling class.
• Weaknesses: Assumes media is fully controlled by elites; neglects the rise of independent journalism.

Question 24

Postmodern View on Media and Crime:

Answer 24

Point: Media creates a “hyperreality” where crime is consumed as entertainment.

Sociologist: Jean Baudrillard - Media blurs reality and representation, making crime a spectacle.

Evaluation:
• Strengths: Explains phenomena like true crime documentaries and reality TV.
• Weaknesses: Too abstract—lacks empirical support for its claims.

Question 25

Left Realist Critique:

Answer 25

Point: Media promotes relative deprivation through consumerism.

Sociologist: Jock Young - Media advertising creates a “bulimic society,” intensifying crime among marginalised groups.

Evaluation:
• Strengths: Links media portrayal to real economic and social inequality.
• Weaknesses: Overemphasises media’s role and ignores other structural factors.

Question 26

Social Media and Crime:

Answer 26

Point: Social media facilitates both crime reporting and commission.

Sociologist: Jewkes - Argues social media democratises information but also spreads deviance.

Evaluation:
• Strengths: Highlights the dual role of social media in crime awareness and misinformation.
• Weaknesses: Difficult to measure the true impact on crime rates.

Question 27

Global Criminal Economy:

Answer 27

Sociologist: Manuel Castells

Point: Globalisation has created a global criminal economy worth billions, including drugs, human trafficking, and arms smuggling.

Evaluation:
• Strengths: Highlights the scale and profitability of transnational crime networks.
• Weaknesses: Overemphasises economic factors; ignores cultural aspects like local criminal traditions.

Question 28

Glocal Crime:

Answer 28

Sociologists: Hobbs and Dunningham

Point: Criminal networks operate “glocally” — locally based but globally connected.

Evaluation:
• Strengths: Explains the mix of global supply chains (e.g., drugs) with local distribution.
• Weaknesses: Lacks clarity on the role of individual agency in criminal activity.

Question 29

McMafia:

Answer 29

Sociologist: Misha Glenny

Point: Post-Soviet globalisation allowed criminal organisations to act like multinational corporations.

Evaluation:
• Strengths: Explains the rise of sophisticated, profit-driven crime networks.
• Weaknesses: Focuses heavily on economic motivations, ignoring political or social drivers.

Question 30

Risk Society:

Answer 30

Sociologist: Ulrich Beck

Point: Globalisation creates a “risk society” where threats like terrorism and cybercrime dominate perceptions.

Evaluation:
• Strengths: Highlights the psychological impact of globalisation on fear of crime.
• Weaknesses: Overlooks how some risks are amplified disproportionately by the media.

Question 31

Human Trafficking:

Answer 31

Sociologist: Castells

Point: Globalisation exacerbates inequalities, increasing the prevalence of human trafficking for labour and sexual exploitation.

Evaluation:
• Strengths: Explains the role of global inequality in fostering modern slavery.
• Weaknesses: Solutions are often focused on law enforcement rather than addressing root causes like poverty.

Question 32

Cultural Globalisation and Crime:

Answer 32

Sociologist: Taylor

Point: Globalisation promotes consumer culture, leading to feelings of relative deprivation and increased crime.

Evaluation:
• Strengths: Links cultural influences to criminal motivations.
• Weaknesses: Overemphasises global culture; neglects individual agency.

Question 33

Global Governance of Crime:

Answer 33

Sociologist: Franko Aas

Point: Globalisation has led to international efforts to control crime, such as INTERPOL and UN
agreements.

Evaluation:
• Strengths: Highlights the role of global institutions in tackling transnational crime.
• Weaknesses: Effectiveness is limited by state sovereignty and lack of enforcement power.