Crime and Deviance

Question 1

Define Crime and Deviance:

Answer 1

• Crime is an act that breaks the law (e.g., theft), while deviance is behaviour that violates social norms (e.g., wearing pajamas in public).
• Statistics: In 2022, there were approximately 5.4 million crimes recorded in England and Wales.
• Evaluation: Not all deviant acts are crimes, and not all crimes are considered deviant (e.g., tax evasion may be seen as acceptable by some).

Question 2

What are Durkheim’s views on crime?

Answer 2

• Durkheim argues that crime is inevitable and functional, reinforcing social boundaries (e.g., public outrage after a crime like a murder).
• Evaluation: While crime can reinforce norms, it can also lead to social instability and fear. Critics argue that Durkheim overlooks the trauma experienced by victims (e.g., victims of violent crime).

Question 3

What is Merton’s Strain Theory?

Answer 3

• Merton suggests that strain arises when individuals cannot achieve societal goals through legitimate means, leading to responses like innovation (e.g., drug dealing).
• Statistics: In 2021, around 1 in 4 young people reported feeling the pressure to achieve material success.
• Evaluation: Critics argue it ignores crimes committed by the wealthy (e.g., corporate fraud) and the role of socialisation in deviant behaviour.

Question 4

Subcultural Theories:

Answer 4

• Focus on groups that develop norms and values differing from mainstream society, often due to deprivation or marginalisation.
• Albert Cohen: Suggests that working-class boys face status frustration, leading to the formation of delinquent subcultures as an alternative means of gaining status.
• Cloward and Ohlin: Identify three types of delinquent subcultures: criminal, conflict, and retreatist, based on the type of environment and opportunities available

Question 5

What is Cohen’s theory of Status Frustration?

Answer 5

• Cohen argues that working-class boys experience status frustration and form delinquent subcultures (e.g., gangs) to gain status they cannot achieve through academic success.
• Statistics: A study showed that over 60% of gang members in the UK reported feeling marginalised.
• Evaluation: Focuses on male youth, lacking insights into female or middle-class subcultures and their experiences with deviance.

Question 6

Marxism and Crime:

Answer 6

• Argues that crime is a result of the capitalist system, which breeds inequality and exploitation.
• David Gordon: Claims that crime is a rational response to capitalism, which emphasises competition and individual gain.

Question 7

Explain Chambliss’ Marxist view on crime.

Answer 7

• Chambliss argues that laws protect the ruling class (e.g., corporate laws favouring large businesses) while the working class is criminalised (e.g., harsher penalties for petty theft).
• Statistics: In 2021, 87% of white-collar crime cases resulted in no prison time, while 50% of street crime offenders received custodial sentences.
• Evaluation: While highlighting class bias, critics say it can oversimplify the causes of crime by attributing it solely to economic factors.

Question 8

Explain the concept of white-collar crime.

Answer 8

• White-collar crime includes financially motivated crimes by the upper class (e.g., Enron’s accounting fraud), often less visible and less punished than street crime.
• Statistics: The estimated cost of white-collar crime is over £190 billion annually in the UK.
• Evaluation: Highlights class bias but can overlook working-class crime that also harms society (e.g., minor theft leading to significant community distress).

Question 9

Describe Becker’s Labelling Theory.

Answer 9

• Becker claims deviance is socially constructed through labelling (e.g., a teenager labelled as a “troublemaker” may adopt that identity).
• Statistics: Studies show that 30% of labelled individuals continue to engage in deviant behaviour.
• Evaluation: Highlights stigma but doesn’t explain why people commit crime in the first place (e.g., motivations for theft beyond societal reaction).

Question 10

Differentiate between primary and secondary deviance according to Lemert.

Answer 10

• Primary deviance is minor, often unnoticed (e.g., skipping school), while secondary deviance follows societal reactions, reinforcing a deviant identity (e.g., a student branded as a delinquent becoming one).
• Statistics: 40% of youths labelled as “delinquents” are likely to re-offend.
  Evaluation: Emphasises the impact of labelling but may overemphasise its effects on behaviour and overlook personal choice.

Question 11

What is Left Realism’s view on crime?

Answer 11

• Left Realism links crime to relative deprivation (e.g., feelings of envy toward wealthier peers), marginalisation (e.g., disillusioned youth), and subcultures (e.g., gang culture).
• Statistics: A survey showed that 45% of people in lower socioeconomic groups felt marginalised.
• Evaluation: Useful for focusing on causes, but criticised for not addressing individual responsibility and over-reliance on statistics.

Question 12

What does Right Realism say about crime?

Answer 12

• Right Realism argues crime results from individual choices (e.g., choosing to shoplift) and inadequate social control (e.g., ineffective policing), advocating tough policies (e.g., zero tolerance).
• Statistics: In 2020, crime rates decreased by 10% in areas with increased police presence.
• Evaluation: Criticised for being punitive and ignoring the underlying social issues (e.g., poverty) that contribute to crime.

Question 13

Gender and Crime:

Answer 13

• Male Crime: Men are more likely to commit crime, often attributed to social expectations around masculinity (e.g., toughness, risk-taking).
• Female Crime: Women historically commit fewer crimes, but some theorists suggest their rates are rising due to changes in social roles and independence

Question 14

Explanations for Male Criminality:

Answer 14

• Subcultural Theories:
- Peer pressure and gang culture contribute to male offending.

•	Status Frustration:  - Young men may turn to crime to assert masculinity or gain respect.

•	Opportunity Structures:  - Men have more access to opportunities for crime (e.g., workplace theft).

Question 15

Criminal Justice System Bias:

Answer 15

• Paternalism:
- The system may infantilise women and treat them differently based on traditional gender roles.

•	Sexualisation of Women: Female offenders may be judged more harshly if their behavior deviates from femininity.

Question 16

Chivalry Thesis: Pollack

Answer 16

• The idea that women are treated more leniently by the criminal justice system.
• Less likely to be recorded.
• Less likely to be prosecuted for minor crimes.

Question 17

Critic of Chivalry Thesis: Farrington

Answer 17

• F & M judged similarly for sim. offences.

Question 18

Gender Class Deal: Carlen

Answer 18

• Suggests that women commit crimes when they reject the “class deal” (economic stability) and “gender deal” (family life).
• Commit crime as they feel these deals have failed them and as a means of survival or resistance

Question 19

Liberation Thesis: Adler

Answer 19

• As women gain more equality, their crime rates may rise to match those of men.

Question 20

Control Theory: Heidensohn

Answer 20

• Women commit fewer crimes due to stricter social controls, particularly within the family and community.
• F are more controlled thus, less likely to be criminal
• private spheres
• patriarchy is a key factor

Question 21

Carol Smart:

Answer 21

• Highlights the lack of focus on women in criminology and the need for feminist perspectives.

Question 22

Patterns and Trends:

Answer 22

• Gender Gap in Crime:
- Men are more likely than women to commit violent or serious crimes.

•	Types of Crime:  - Women are more likely to engage in shoplifting or fraud, while men dominate in violent and property crimes.

•	Victimisation:  - Women are more likely to be victims of sexual violence; men are more likely to be victims of violent crimes involving strangers.

Question 23

What does Heidensohn say about women and crime?

Answer 23

• Heidensohn suggests women are controlled by family (e.g., expectations to care for children) and societal expectations, reducing their likelihood of criminal behaviour.
• Statistics: Female crime rates have risen by 17% from 2009 to 2019.
• Evaluation: Critics argue this view is outdated and doesn’t fully explain rising female crime rates (e.g., increased shoplifting or drug offenses).

Question 24

Institutional Racism:

Answer 24

• Studies like the Macpherson Report (1999) highlighted issues of racism within the police, which may lead to disproportionate targeting of ethnic minorities.

Question 25

What is Institutional Racism in relation to crime?

Answer 25

• Institutional racism refers to discrimination within organisations (e.g., police stop-and-search practices disproportionately targeting ethnic minorities) leading to disproportionate targeting of these groups.
• Statistics: Black individuals are 4 times more likely to be stopped and searched than white individuals.
• Evaluation: Highlights inequality but critics argue it overlooks higher crime rates in disadvantaged areas and does not address the complexity of crime.

Question 26

Globalisation and Crime
Transnational Crime:

Answer 26

• Transnational Crime: Globalisation has facilitated new forms of crime like human trafficking, drug trade, and cyber crime, which cross national borders.
• Green Crime: Crimes against the environment, like pollution or deforestation, are increasingly recognised as significant issues.
• State Crime: Crimes committed by governments, such as genocide or corruption, highlight the power of the state to conceal or justify criminal acts.

Question 27

How does globalisation affect crime?

Answer 27

• Globalisation enables transnational crimes like human trafficking (e.g., exploitation of migrant workers), cyber crime (e.g., identity theft), and green crimes (e.g., illegal logging).
• Statistics: The International Labour Organisation estimates that 24.9 million people are victims of forced labour globally.
• Evaluation: Important in understanding modern crime but can overlook local criminal issues (e.g., domestic violence, vandalism).

Question 28

Control, Prevention, and Punishment
Situational Crime Prevention:

Answer 28

• Aims to reduce opportunities for crime through measures like improved surveillance and environmental design.
• Social and Community Crime Prevention: Focuses on addressing root causes of crime, like poverty and education, to prevent crime at a societal level.
• Punishment Theories: Include deterrence (discouraging crime through harsh penalties), rehabilitation (reforming offenders), and retribution (punishing offenders for wrongdoing)

Question 29

What is Situational Crime Prevention?

Answer 29

• Strategies to reduce opportunities for crime (e.g., installing CCTV in public spaces), like improved surveillance and environmental design.
• Statistics: In one case, areas with increased CCTV saw a 50% reduction in property crime.
• Evaluation: Effective for specific crimes (e.g., burglary) but may displace crime to other areas (e.g., moving crime from one neighbourhood to another) or ignore root causes (e.g., poverty).

Question 30

Describe the concept of punishment as deterrence, retribution, and rehabilitation.

Answer 30

• Deterrence discourages crime with harsh penalties (e.g., lengthy prison sentences), retribution punishes wrongdoing (e.g., life sentences for murder), and rehabilitation aims to reform offenders (e.g., drug treatment programs).
• Statistics: Recidivism rates are high, with about 44% of prisoners re-offending within a year of release.
• Evaluation: Balances have different goals, but harsh punishments often do not reduce recidivism effectively, indicating a need for more rehabilitative approaches.

Question 31

Crime Statistics and Crime Measurement
Official Crime Statistics:

Answer 31

• Gathered from police and government data, though they may under-report crime due to factors like under-reporting by victims or police discretion.
• Victim Surveys (e.g., British Crime Survey): Capture unreported crimes but may miss certain groups, like young people or homeless individuals.
• Self-Report Studies: Ask individuals to admit to crimes they’ve committed, revealing hidden crimes but potentially affected by honesty issues.

Question 32

How does the media distort perceptions of crime?

Answer 32

• The media often exaggerates the frequency and severity of violent crimes, leading to moral panic and fear.
• Example: News stories about youth crime or gang violence are over-represented compared to actual statistics.
• Evaluation: This can lead to public pressure on law enforcement, but critics argue it ignores underlying social causes.

Question 33

What is moral panic according to Stanley Cohen?

Answer 33

• Moral panic occurs when the media exaggerates a group as a societal threat, causing widespread fear.
• Example: Cohen’s study on Mods and Rockers in the 1960s, where media coverage amplified youth clashes.
• Evaluation: Highlights media influence.

Question 34

What role does the media play in crime representation?

Answer 34

A: The media often sensationalises crime, depicting it in a way that prioritises entertainment over factual representation, affecting public perception and fear.

• Example: Crime dramas and reality TV shows often portray police work as straightforward and successful, neglecting the complexities and failures of the justice system.
• Statistics: Research indicates that 85% of crime stories in the media focus on violent crime, while only 15% represent property crimes or white-collar crimes.
• Evaluation: This creates a public belief that violent crime is more common than it is, while white-collar crime (which can be equally or more harmful) remains under-reported.

Question 35

How does the media influence criminal behaviour?

Answer 35

A: Media representations can desensitise viewers to violence and crime, leading to imitation behaviours, especially among young audiences.

• Example: Studies have linked violent video games, like Grand Theft Auto, to increased aggression and desensitisation toward violence.
• Statistics: A study found that children exposed to violent media are 3 times more likely to exhibit aggressive behaviour.
• Evaluation: While some research supports the link between media violence and real-life aggression, other studies argue that factors like social environment and personality play a more significant role.

Question 36

What is the cultivation theory proposed by George Gerbner?

Answer 36

• Cultivation theory suggests that long-term exposure to media content shapes viewers’ perceptions of reality, particularly regarding crime.
• Example: Regular viewers of crime shows may perceive the world as more dangerous than it actually is, leading to increased fear of crime.
• Statistics: Gerbner’s research found that heavy TV viewers were 25% more likely to believe that crime rates were rising.
• Evaluation: This theory highlights the powerful effects of media but may downplay the influence of personal experience and social context on perceptions of crime.

Question 37

What is the hypodermic needle theory?

Answer 37

• This theory posits that media messages are directly “injected” into passive audiences, influencing their attitudes and behaviours.
• Example: During the 1930s, the broadcast of War of the Worlds led to panic among listeners who believed an alien invasion was occurring.
• Statistics: Surveys after the broadcast indicated that over 1 million people believed the fictional story to be true.
• Evaluation: While this theory emphasises the potential for media influence, critics argue that it oversimplifies audience engagement and does not account for individual interpretations and responses to media.

Question 38

What is the deviance amplification theory?

Answer 38

• This theory suggests that media coverage of deviant behaviour can lead to an increase in that behaviour as individuals seek attention or validation.
• Example: Media coverage of riots can provoke further unrest and violence, as seen in the London riots of 2011, which were heavily covered and influenced subsequent actions.
• Statistics: During the London riots, arrests surged to over 3,000 within days of extensive media coverage.
• Evaluation: While highlighting the media’s role in escalating deviance, critics argue it oversimplifies the complex motivations behind such behaviour.

Question 39

How does social media affect crime?

Answer 39

• Social media can facilitate crime (e.g., cyber bullying, human trafficking) and also serve as a platform for crime reporting and awareness.
• Example: Criminals use social media to coordinate illegal activities, such as drug trafficking, by advertising products and services.
• Statistics: A study found that 70% of young people reported witnessing or experiencing cyber bullying on social media.
• Evaluation: While social media raises awareness and connects communities, it also poses challenges in regulation and controlling harmful behaviours.

Question 40

What is the impact of new media on crime reporting?

Answer 40

• New media platforms (like blogs and social networks) democratise crime reporting, allowing more voices but potentially spreading misinformation.
• Example: Citizen journalism during events like protests or riots can provide real-time updates but may lack verification.
• Statistics: A study found that 65% of people trust social media for news, but only 35% believe it is always accurate.
• Evaluation: New media increases public engagement but raises concerns about accuracy and sensationalism, complicating the public’s understanding of crime.

Question 41

What are moral entrepreneurs in the context of media and crime?

Answer 41

• Moral entrepreneurs are individuals or groups who seek to influence societal norms and perceptions about crime through the media.
• Example: Activists using media campaigns to draw attention to issues like domestic violence or human trafficking, framing them as urgent social problems.
• Statistics: Campaigns can lead to legislative changes; for example, the #MeToo movement resulted in increased reporting of sexual harassment and abuse cases.
• Evaluation: While they can raise awareness, critics argue that their framing may oversimplify complex issues and marginalise less vocal groups.