coursepack Flashcards

1
Q

3 functions of triglycerides
‘‘FAIP’’

A

1) insulation and protection (keep body temp steady and protect us from shocks)
2) important fuel source for the body
3) absorption of fat-soluble vitamins

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2
Q

what is a macromolecule?
+ 4 types with their examples

A
  • complex, large, organic molecule
    ex:
    1) carbs (sugars)
    2) lipids (fats + oils)
    3) proteins
    4) nucleic acid (DNA/RNA)
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3
Q

CARBS:
difference between monomer and a polymer
+ examples

A

m: macromolecule made of only 1 unit = monosaccharides or disaccharides

ex of disaccharides:
- lactose (di) = galactose + glucose
- sucrose (di)= glucose + fructose
- maltose (di)= 2x glucose

p: macromolecule made of MANY monomer subunits=polysaccharides

ex of polysaccharides: ALL polymers of glucose

  • starch: plant based, very energetic and digestible (we have the right enzymes to digest it by breaking down into monomers)
  • cellulose: plant based, indigestible (no enzymes to digest it) ex: fibers
  • glycogen: stored in animal tissues: muscles and liver
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4
Q

Carbohydrates functions (2):

A

1) glucose:
- favorite fuel for the cell
- ATP produced from glucose breakdown
2) combines with other macromolecules to form cell structures (carb attached to…)
ex: glucoproteins and glycolipids

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5
Q

Lipids:
what are the 3 major groups?

A

*lipids= hydrophobic

  • triglycerides
  • phospholipids
  • steroids (sterols)
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6
Q

triglycerides:
- where?
- structure?
- how to they vary? (2)
- functions? (4)

A

where: body tissues as fat (adipose tissue)

structure: glycerol backone + 3 fatty acids
* diglyceride= 2 fatty acid
* monoglyceride = 1 fatty acid

vary by:
lenght (# of carbon, 10-20)
and degree of saturation

-saturated= C-C, animal source, solid at RT, ex: fat and butter

  • unsaturated: C=C or triple bond, plant source, liquid at room temp, ex: oil, mono/polyunsaturated

functions : FAIP
- fuel
- absorption of fat soluble vitamins
- insulation
- protection

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7
Q

phospholipids:
- what are phospholipids+ structure?
- where is it found?

A

modified triglycerides:
glycerol backbone, 2 fatty acids, phosphate group

hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail

component of cell membrane

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8
Q

steroids:
structure?
function?
synthesized by?

A

structure: 4 hydrocarbon rings + 1 side chain

function: important for
- bile acids
- hormones
- vitamins (B, K?)

synthesized by: plants & animals

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9
Q

proteins:
what are they made of?

A

made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds

amino acids:
- carboxyl group
- amino group
- side chain (R group) * variable up to 20 amino acids

peptide bonds:
- carboxyl group & amino group bond
dipeptide: 2 amino acids
tripeptide: 3
poly: <100
protein: >100

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10
Q

proteins:
structural levels
+ 1 example

A

primary = sequence of amino acids

secondary= alpha helix, pleated or beta sheet

tertiary = folding of alpha helixes and pleated sheets (3D)

quaternary (not all proteins) = assembly of many folded polypeptides to have a functional protein

ex: hemoglobin carries 02in RBCs

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11
Q

proteins:
functions (6) + example
SSSDMC

A
  • structure
    (keratin found in nails & hair)
  • storage
    (albumin in egg whites provides nutrients for the embryo)
  • signaling
    (growth hormone is a hormonal messenger)
  • defense
    (antibodies of immune system)
  • movement
    (actin & myosin in muscle cells)
  • catalyzing rx
    (enzyme amylase breas down starch)
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12
Q

what are enzymes?

their functions?

anabolic vs catabolic reactions

A
  • enzymes are proteins with specific functions
  • they are biological catalysts; increase rate of rx by decreasing the AE
  • substrates form product
  • enzyme is left unchanged

anabolix rx=synthesis= energy stores

catabolic rx = breakdown = energy released

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13
Q

list the organs making up the gastrointestinal tract (7)

list the accessory organs (3)

A

Mouth/tongue
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum)
Large intestine (transverse, ascending, descending colon)
Anus

Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas

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14
Q

what are the goals of digestion? (2)

what is an essential nutrient? + ex

A
  • extract nutrients form food to make energy (ATP), kcal or Cal
  • obtain building blocks for growth and repair so that our body saves energy and gets essential nutrients

essential nutrient: must be obtained from the diet because body can’t synthesize it
ex: omega 3 and 6

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15
Q

explain the digestive activities

1) INGESTION

2) PROPULSION

3) MECHANICAL DIGESTION

A

INGESTION:
- entry of food through oral cavity (mouth, teeth, tongue)
- chewing, mixing w/ saliva, 1st enzymes to form bolus

PROPULSION:
- moving bolus towards digestive tract
- deglutition/swallowing (voluntary)
- peristalsis; contraction waves of smooth muscles in 1 direction (involuntary)

MECHANICAL DIGESTION:
- increases surface area and mobility of food
physical process:
- mastication (mouth)
- churning (stomach; bolus → chyme)
- segmentation (small intestine; homogenizes chyme, contracts in different directions)

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16
Q

explain the digestive activities

4) CHEMICAL DIGESTION

5) ABSORPTION

6) DEFECATION

A

CHEMICAL DIGESTION:
- enzymes break down macromolecules
- starts in mouth, completed in small intestine

ABSORPTION:
(size of molecules matters for absorption)
- simple columnar epithelieum of small intestine (microvilli on apical surface)
- nutrients exit intestinal lumen and go through intestinal wall to enter the body
- nutrients go to bloodstream or lymphatic circulation

DEFECATION:
- not all food is (chemically) digested and absorbed
- accumulation of feces in the rectum

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17
Q

anatomy and physiology of the oral cavity:

teeth
tongue
saliva
functions
2 enzymes

A

1) teeth (mechanical digestion)
incisors → biting
canines → tearing
premolars → mashing/smooth swallowing
molars → crushing

2) tongue PMHP
- positions food for chewing
- mixes food with saliva (bolus)
- helps in deglutition process
- produces lingual lipase

3) saliva
- 3 salivary glands:
- parotic
- sublingual
- submadibular

  • water, mucus, molecules, ions= slighly acidic

4) functions of saliva ‘‘MSCD’’
- moistens food (bolus)
- starts chem breakdown (starch, triglycerides)
- cleans mouth (antimicrobial activities)
- dissolves food chemicals (taste)

5) enzymes

1- salivary amylase
active in mouth + stomach
starch → maltose

2- lingual lipase
active in mouth + stomach
triglycerides digestion

18
Q

pharynx:

where?
role?
anatomy?

A
  • links mouth and esophagus
  • not actively participating in digestion (accessory organ)

DURING DEGLUTITION
- uvula: protects airway, prevents bolus from getting in airway/nose

  • epiglottis: closes the entry of the trachea (no food)
  • if not blocking= choke on food
19
Q

esophagus:

anatomy?
functions?

A

anatomy:
upper esophageal sphincter

esophagus

lower esophageal sphincter
* malfunction = acid reflux (heartburn)

esophagus: long muscular tube linking pharynx to stomach

propulsion: peristalsis occurs: smooth muscles allow descent oof bolus

20
Q

stomach:
anatomy

A

starts with lower esophagal sphincter

stomach: reservoir for boluses and thick walls made of 3 layers: CLO
- circular muscle
- longitudinal muscle
+ oblique muscle

gastric glands secrete gastric juices ans secrete HCl which activates protein-digesteding enzyme:

pepsinogen + HCl→ pepsin
(inactive → active)

21
Q

stomach: role of digestion (2)

A

1) mechanical digestion
- churning
- absorption of lipid-soluble substance
ex: alcohol, aspirin

2) chemical digestion
for proteins:
- pepsinogen + HCl→ pepsin
(inactive → active)

  • proteins → peptides

for lipids: 2 enzymes
- lingual lipase
- gastric lipase is activated

bolus → chyme
exits (and controlled by) pyloric sphincter in small qty, regular pace, peristaltic waves (prolonged unidirectional smooth muscle contraction)

22
Q

what is the stomach pH with its pros and cons
and its disorders (3)?

A

pH= acidic (1 to 3)
pros:
kills most pathogenic bateria
protein denaturation

cons:
digest itself: inflammation or gastritis (disorders)

3rd disorder: peptic ulcers/gastric
- very specialized/localized disorder
- persistent damage to protective mucus layer
- cause: helicobacter pylori or drugs
that drill its way down mucus and neutralize acidity to create ideal living conditions
- treatment: anitibiotics or drug change

23
Q

a healthy liver has what kind or surface?

A

smooth and uniform surface

24
Q

anatomy & physiology of small intestines

3 sections + their functions

A

1) duodenum (shortest)
- acidic environment (chyme)
- susceptible to uclers
- production of alkaline mucus
- connected to liver and pancreas (accessory organs)
- chyme continues to mix (segmentation)
- chyme moves forward (peristalsis)

2) jejunum
- main site for nutrients absorption
1) circular folds (large)
- increase surface area for more nutrients absorption

2) villi
-cover mucosa
- simple columnar epithelium

3) microvilli (smallest)
- on apical side of epithelial cells (brush border)

3) ileum (largest part*?)
- processes whatever is left
- chemical digestion completed and most nutrients absorbed

25
unlike amino acids and simple sugars, lipids are _______ and they are _____ through epithelial cells?
transformed absorbed
26
______ _____ enter bloddstream directly vs _____ _______, _______, ________ enter lymphatic vessels then blodd
amino acids fatty acids, glycerol, triglycerides
27
how does the small intestine also participates in chemical digestion? + enzymes on microvilli
chemical digestion: - glands in intestinal walls containe intestinal juice : water + mucus 4 enzymes - peptidases: peptides → a. acids -maltase: maltose → 2 glucose -sucrase: sucrose → glu. + fructose -lactase: lactose: → glu. + galactose after the →, (carbs) fructose, glucose, galactose can be absorbed by small intestine, and (proteins) amino acids need transporters carried in bloodstream
28
liver: anatomy & physiology
anatomy: largest gland in the body physiology: - detoxifies substances in blood - produces bile - does NOT produce enzymes (or hormones)
29
bile: made of? stored? travels? purpose?
- produced by the liver stored and concentrated in gallbladder - delivered by duodenum by common bile duct - bilirubin= greenish -emulsification of lipids; break fat globule, increase surface area so enzyme can attack more, NO chemical digestion - bile salts coat fat droplets
30
what are the 3 liver disorders?
JAUNDICE 3 types: HOI 1) Hemolytic -RBC destruction - bilirubin → into bloodstream - signs of liver problems 2) Obstructive - obstructed bile duct by cholesterol crystals (gallstones) - causes thoracic pain 3) Infant - frequent after birth - cured by phototherapy HEPATITIS cause: viruses, A, B, C treatment: vaccination CIRRHOSIS - chronic inflammation of the liver - liver loses function - caused by alcoholism (poison; pressure onto liver to get rid of alcohol= causing lesions
31
pancreas: function & enzymes (6 total)
glands: - produces pancreatic juice sent into duodenum (activated here) juice made of enzymes and bicarbonate ions to neutralize enzymes: 1) for carbs; pancreatic amylase for starch → maltose 2) for proteins: → peptide tryspin chymotrypsin carboxypeptidase 3) for lipids: → digest triglycerides (glycerol + fatty acids) pancreatic lipase triglycerides become small enough for absorption 4) for nucleic acids: → nucleotides (DNA and RNA) pancreatic nuclease
32
large intestine: anatomy (4 parts) & physiology
4 parts: CCRA - cecum (attached to appendix) - colon - rectum - ascending colon - transverse colon - descending colon - anus *smooth mucose lines the digestive tract role in absorption: - water - electrolytes - some vitamins (B,K) indigestible remnants form feces that enter the rectum: causes of defecation: - nervous reflex - voluntary ad involuntary sphincters
33
disorders of the large intestine (4):
1) Diarrhea - too little water absorption causes: bacterial or viral infection (ex: cholera) and stress (increases peristalsis= less time for absorption) 2) Constipation - too much water absorption solutions: + H20, + fibers, exercises, laxatives (last resort) 3) Appendicitis: (appendix role in immunity, stores intestinal bacteria) symptoms: swelling & pain, can rupture solution: removal 4) Colonorectal cancer detected: using colonoscopy, polyps cancerous or not tretament: colostomy (hole through stoma)
34
what produces cholesterol and why is it essential (4) ?
85% produced by liver essential for: - bile salts - vitamin D - steroid hormones - cell membrane (fluidity buffer)
35
what are macronutrients? + amount of energy they provide
nutrients that are required in large quantities as part of the body macro: - protein 4kcal/g - fat 9kcal/g - carbs 4kcal/g
36
ex of foods with: - carbs - fibers - unsaturated fats - saturated fats - trans fats - protein - complete plant protein - food combo for vegan giving complete protein
carbs: quinoa, barley, fruits, beans, bread fibers: oatmeal, appels, kale, dates unsaturated: avocado, olives, nuts, fish saturated: butter, cheese trans: cakes, donuts, cookies protein: meat, fish, tofu, dairy combo prot: wuinoa, chia seeds, tofu combo: rice & beans, nuts & legumes
37
what are trans fat?
industrially made from unsaturated fats through hydrogenation unsaturated but behave like saturated why: inexpensive, last long choose: unsaturated fats
38
complete vs incomplete proteins
complete: contains all essential amino acids ex: meat incomplete: missing 1 and more amino acids of the 9 essential ex: plants
39
metabolism
- sum of all chemical rx essential to life -production of ATP - catabolic rx: breakdown molecules produces energy (ATP) - anabolic rx: synthesis molecules releases energy
40
how do carbs turn glucose into ATP? 4 steps?
1) Glycolysis - in cytoplasm - 1 glucose= 2 pyruvates - 2 ATP produced 2) pyruvate produces acetyl-coA - in mitochondrion -step before kreb cycle 3) Krebs cycle - in mitochondria - presence of oxygen - little ATP, high energy molecules: NADH, FADH2 4) Oxidative phoshorilation - in mitochondria - yields 34 ATP *glucose=favorite fuel 1 glucose molecule= 36 ATP
41
Problematics of excess glucose & lack of glucose
glucose levels must be stable for cells, brain works betetr on glucose EXCESS surplus is stored as: - glycogen in skeletal muscles & liver (limited) - triglycerides in adipose tissue (unlimited) LACK -activation of gluconeogenesis → in liver from non-sugar molecules pyruvate, glycerol, amino acids →causes: fasting, starvation, low-carb diet
42
glucose level: hormone regulation
pancreatic hormones(2): insulin → Beta cells glucagon → alpha cells Insulin: BEI - binds to cell to open so transporters for glucose can go in - glucose enters cells so lower blood glucose level - increases glycogen storage thus prevents gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis glucagon: - glucose stops entering cells so increase bloof glucose level - increase glycogenolysis (breakdown) - increase gluconeogenesis Glucagon: - - -