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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

3 functions of triglycerides
‘‘FAIP’’

A

1) insulation and protection (keep body temp steady and protect us from shocks)
2) important fuel source for the body
3) absorption of fat-soluble vitamins

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2
Q

what is a macromolecule?
+ 4 types with their examples

A
  • complex, large, organic molecule
    ex:
    1) carbs (sugars)
    2) lipids (fats + oils)
    3) proteins
    4) nucleic acid (DNA/RNA)
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3
Q

CARBS:
difference between monomer and a polymer
+ examples

A

m: macromolecule made of only 1 unit = monosaccharides or disaccharides

ex of disaccharides:
- lactose (di) = galactose + glucose
- sucrose (di)= glucose + fructose
- maltose (di)= 2x glucose

p: macromolecule made of MANY monomer subunits=polysaccharides

ex of polysaccharides: ALL polymers of glucose

  • starch: plant based, very energetic and digestible (we have the right enzymes to digest it by breaking down into monomers)
  • cellulose: plant based, indigestible (no enzymes to digest it) ex: fibers
  • glycogen: stored in animal tissues: muscles and liver
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4
Q

Carbohydrates functions (2):

A

1) glucose:
- favorite fuel for the cell
- ATP produced from glucose breakdown
2) combines with other macromolecules to form cell structures (carb attached to…)
ex: glucoproteins and glycolipids

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5
Q

Lipids:
what are the 3 major groups?

A

*lipids= hydrophobic

  • triglycerides
  • phospholipids
  • steroids (sterols)
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6
Q

triglycerides:
- where?
- structure?
- how to they vary? (2)
- functions? (4)

A

where: body tissues as fat (adipose tissue)

structure: glycerol backone + 3 fatty acids
* diglyceride= 2 fatty acid
* monoglyceride = 1 fatty acid

vary by:
lenght (# of carbon, 10-20)
and degree of saturation

-saturated= C-C, animal source, solid at RT, ex: fat and butter

  • unsaturated: C=C or triple bond, plant source, liquid at room temp, ex: oil, mono/polyunsaturated

functions : FAIP
- fuel
- absorption of fat soluble vitamins
- insulation
- protection

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7
Q

phospholipids:
- what are phospholipids+ structure?
- where is it found?

A

modified triglycerides:
glycerol backbone, 2 fatty acids, phosphate group

hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail

component of cell membrane

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8
Q

steroids:
structure?
function?
synthesized by?

A

structure: 4 hydrocarbon rings + 1 side chain

function: important for
- bile acids
- hormones
- vitamins (B, K?)

synthesized by: plants & animals

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9
Q

proteins:
what are they made of?

A

made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds

amino acids:
- carboxyl group
- amino group
- side chain (R group) * variable up to 20 amino acids

peptide bonds:
- carboxyl group & amino group bond
dipeptide: 2 amino acids
tripeptide: 3
poly: <100
protein: >100

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10
Q

proteins:
structural levels
+ 1 example

A

primary = sequence of amino acids

secondary= alpha helix, pleated or beta sheet

tertiary = folding of alpha helixes and pleated sheets (3D)

quaternary (not all proteins) = assembly of many folded polypeptides to have a functional protein

ex: hemoglobin carries 02in RBCs

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11
Q

proteins:
functions (6) + example
SSSDMC

A
  • structure
    (keratin found in nails & hair)
  • storage
    (albumin in egg whites provides nutrients for the embryo)
  • signaling
    (growth hormone is a hormonal messenger)
  • defense
    (antibodies of immune system)
  • movement
    (actin & myosin in muscle cells)
  • catalyzing rx
    (enzyme amylase breas down starch)
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12
Q

what are enzymes?

their functions?

anabolic vs catabolic reactions

A
  • enzymes are proteins with specific functions
  • they are biological catalysts; increase rate of rx by decreasing the AE
  • substrates form product
  • enzyme is left unchanged

anabolix rx=synthesis= energy stores

catabolic rx = breakdown = energy released

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13
Q

list the organs making up the gastrointestinal tract (7)

list the accessory organs (3)

A

Mouth/tongue
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum)
Large intestine (transverse, ascending, descending colon)
Anus

Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas

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14
Q

what are the goals of digestion? (2)

what is an essential nutrient? + ex

A
  • extract nutrients form food to make energy (ATP), kcal or Cal
  • obtain building blocks for growth and repair so that our body saves energy and gets essential nutrients

essential nutrient: must be obtained from the diet because body can’t synthesize it
ex: omega 3 and 6

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15
Q

explain the digestive activities

1) INGESTION

2) PROPULSION

3) MECHANICAL DIGESTION

A

INGESTION:
- entry of food through oral cavity (mouth, teeth, tongue)
- chewing, mixing w/ saliva, 1st enzymes to form bolus

PROPULSION:
- moving bolus towards digestive tract
- deglutition/swallowing (voluntary)
- peristalsis; contraction waves of smooth muscles in 1 direction (involuntary)

MECHANICAL DIGESTION:
- increases surface area and mobility of food
physical process:
- mastication (mouth)
- churning (stomach; bolus → chyme)
- segmentation (small intestine; homogenizes chyme, contracts in different directions)

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16
Q

explain the digestive activities

4) CHEMICAL DIGESTION

5) ABSORPTION

6) DEFECATION

A

CHEMICAL DIGESTION:
- enzymes break down macromolecules
- starts in mouth, completed in small intestine

ABSORPTION:
(size of molecules matters for absorption)
- simple columnar epithelieum of small intestine (microvilli on apical surface)
- nutrients exit intestinal lumen and go through intestinal wall to enter the body
- nutrients go to bloodstream or lymphatic circulation

DEFECATION:
- not all food is (chemically) digested and absorbed
- accumulation of feces in the rectum

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17
Q

anatomy and physiology of the oral cavity:

teeth
tongue
saliva
functions
2 enzymes

A

1) teeth (mechanical digestion)
incisors → biting
canines → tearing
premolars → mashing/smooth swallowing
molars → crushing

2) tongue PMHP
- positions food for chewing
- mixes food with saliva (bolus)
- helps in deglutition process
- produces lingual lipase

3) saliva
- 3 salivary glands:
- parotic
- sublingual
- submadibular

  • water, mucus, molecules, ions= slighly acidic

4) functions of saliva ‘‘MSCD’’
- moistens food (bolus)
- starts chem breakdown (starch, triglycerides)
- cleans mouth (antimicrobial activities)
- dissolves food chemicals (taste)

5) enzymes

1- salivary amylase
active in mouth + stomach
starch → maltose

2- lingual lipase
active in mouth + stomach
triglycerides digestion

18
Q

pharynx:

where?
role?
anatomy?

A
  • links mouth and esophagus
  • not actively participating in digestion (accessory organ)

DURING DEGLUTITION
- uvula: protects airway, prevents bolus from getting in airway/nose

  • epiglottis: closes the entry of the trachea (no food)
  • if not blocking= choke on food
19
Q

esophagus:

anatomy?
functions?

A

anatomy:
upper esophageal sphincter

esophagus

lower esophageal sphincter
* malfunction = acid reflux (heartburn)

esophagus: long muscular tube linking pharynx to stomach

propulsion: peristalsis occurs: smooth muscles allow descent oof bolus

20
Q

stomach:
anatomy

A

starts with lower esophagal sphincter

stomach: reservoir for boluses and thick walls made of 3 layers: CLO
- circular muscle
- longitudinal muscle
+ oblique muscle

gastric glands secrete gastric juices ans secrete HCl which activates protein-digesteding enzyme:

pepsinogen + HCl→ pepsin
(inactive → active)

21
Q

stomach: role of digestion (2)

A

1) mechanical digestion
- churning
- absorption of lipid-soluble substance
ex: alcohol, aspirin

2) chemical digestion
for proteins:
- pepsinogen + HCl→ pepsin
(inactive → active)

  • proteins → peptides

for lipids: 2 enzymes
- lingual lipase
- gastric lipase is activated

bolus → chyme
exits (and controlled by) pyloric sphincter in small qty, regular pace, peristaltic waves (prolonged unidirectional smooth muscle contraction)

22
Q

what is the stomach pH with its pros and cons
and its disorders (3)?

A

pH= acidic (1 to 3)
pros:
kills most pathogenic bateria
protein denaturation

cons:
digest itself: inflammation or gastritis (disorders)

3rd disorder: peptic ulcers/gastric
- very specialized/localized disorder
- persistent damage to protective mucus layer
- cause: helicobacter pylori or drugs
that drill its way down mucus and neutralize acidity to create ideal living conditions
- treatment: anitibiotics or drug change

23
Q

a healthy liver has what kind or surface?

A

smooth and uniform surface

24
Q

anatomy & physiology of small intestines

3 sections + their functions

A

1) duodenum (shortest)
- acidic environment (chyme)
- susceptible to uclers
- production of alkaline mucus
- connected to liver and pancreas (accessory organs)
- chyme continues to mix (segmentation)
- chyme moves forward (peristalsis)

2) jejunum
- main site for nutrients absorption
1) circular folds (large)
- increase surface area for more nutrients absorption

2) villi
-cover mucosa
- simple columnar epithelium

3) microvilli (smallest)
- on apical side of epithelial cells (brush border)

3) ileum (largest part*?)
- processes whatever is left
- chemical digestion completed and most nutrients absorbed

25
Q

unlike amino acids and simple sugars, lipids are _______ and they are _____ through epithelial cells?

A

transformed

absorbed

26
Q

______ _____ enter bloddstream directly
vs
_____ _______, _______, ________ enter lymphatic vessels then blodd

A

amino acids

fatty acids, glycerol, triglycerides

27
Q

how does the small intestine also participates in chemical digestion?

+ enzymes on microvilli

A

chemical digestion:
- glands in intestinal walls containe intestinal juice : water + mucus

4 enzymes
- peptidases: peptides → a. acids
-maltase: maltose → 2 glucose
-sucrase: sucrose → glu. + fructose
-lactase: lactose: → glu. + galactose

after the →,
(carbs) fructose, glucose, galactose
can be absorbed by small intestine, and
(proteins) amino acids need transporters carried in bloodstream

28
Q

liver:
anatomy & physiology

A

anatomy: largest gland in the body

physiology:
- detoxifies substances in blood
- produces bile
- does NOT produce enzymes (or hormones)

29
Q

bile:
made of?
stored?
travels?
purpose?

A
  • produced by the liver
    stored and concentrated in gallbladder
  • delivered by duodenum by common bile duct
  • bilirubin= greenish
    -emulsification of lipids; break fat globule, increase surface area so enzyme can attack more, NO chemical digestion
  • bile salts coat fat droplets
30
Q

what are the 3 liver disorders?

A

JAUNDICE
3 types: HOI
1) Hemolytic
-RBC destruction
- bilirubin → into bloodstream
- signs of liver problems

2) Obstructive
- obstructed bile duct by cholesterol crystals (gallstones)
- causes thoracic pain

3) Infant
- frequent after birth
- cured by phototherapy

HEPATITIS
cause: viruses, A, B, C
treatment: vaccination

CIRRHOSIS
- chronic inflammation of the liver
- liver loses function
- caused by alcoholism (poison; pressure onto liver to get rid of alcohol= causing lesions

31
Q

pancreas:
function & enzymes (6 total)

A

glands:

  • produces pancreatic juice sent into duodenum (activated here)
    juice made of enzymes and bicarbonate ions to neutralize

enzymes:
1) for carbs; pancreatic amylase for starch → maltose

2) for proteins: → peptide
tryspin
chymotrypsin
carboxypeptidase

3) for lipids: → digest triglycerides (glycerol + fatty acids)
pancreatic lipase
triglycerides become small enough for absorption

4) for nucleic acids: → nucleotides (DNA and RNA)
pancreatic nuclease

32
Q

large intestine: anatomy (4 parts) & physiology

A

4 parts: CCRA
- cecum (attached to appendix)
- colon
- rectum
- ascending colon
- transverse colon
- descending colon
- anus
*smooth mucose lines the digestive tract

role in absorption:
- water
- electrolytes
- some vitamins (B,K)

indigestible remnants form feces that enter the rectum:
causes of defecation:
- nervous reflex
- voluntary ad involuntary sphincters

33
Q

disorders of the large intestine (4):

A

1) Diarrhea
- too little water absorption
causes: bacterial or viral infection (ex: cholera) and stress (increases peristalsis= less time for absorption)

2) Constipation
- too much water absorption
solutions: + H20, + fibers, exercises, laxatives (last resort)

3) Appendicitis:
(appendix role in immunity, stores intestinal bacteria)
symptoms: swelling & pain, can rupture
solution: removal

4) Colonorectal cancer
detected: using colonoscopy, polyps cancerous or not
tretament: colostomy (hole through stoma)

34
Q

what produces cholesterol and why is it essential (4) ?

A

85% produced by liver
essential for:
- bile salts
- vitamin D
- steroid hormones
- cell membrane (fluidity buffer)

35
Q

what are macronutrients? + amount of energy they provide

A

nutrients that are required in large quantities as part of the body

macro:
- protein 4kcal/g
- fat 9kcal/g
- carbs 4kcal/g

36
Q

ex of foods with:

  • carbs
  • fibers
  • unsaturated fats
  • saturated fats
  • trans fats
  • protein
  • complete plant protein
  • food combo for vegan giving complete protein
A

carbs: quinoa, barley, fruits, beans, bread

fibers: oatmeal, appels, kale, dates

unsaturated: avocado, olives, nuts, fish

saturated: butter, cheese

trans: cakes, donuts, cookies

protein: meat, fish, tofu, dairy

combo prot: wuinoa, chia seeds, tofu

combo: rice & beans, nuts & legumes

37
Q

what are trans fat?

A

industrially made from unsaturated fats through hydrogenation

unsaturated but behave like saturated

why: inexpensive, last long
choose: unsaturated fats

38
Q

complete vs incomplete proteins

A

complete: contains all essential amino acids
ex: meat

incomplete: missing 1 and more amino acids of the 9 essential
ex: plants

39
Q

metabolism

A
  • sum of all chemical rx essential to life

-production of ATP

  • catabolic rx: breakdown molecules
    produces energy (ATP)
  • anabolic rx: synthesis molecules
    releases energy
40
Q

how do carbs turn glucose into ATP?

4 steps?

A

1) Glycolysis
- in cytoplasm
- 1 glucose= 2 pyruvates
- 2 ATP produced

2) pyruvate produces acetyl-coA
- in mitochondrion
-step before kreb cycle

3) Krebs cycle
- in mitochondria
- presence of oxygen
- little ATP, high energy molecules: NADH, FADH2

4) Oxidative phoshorilation
- in mitochondria
- yields 34 ATP

*glucose=favorite fuel
1 glucose molecule= 36 ATP

41
Q

Problematics of excess glucose & lack of glucose

A

glucose levels must be stable for cells, brain works betetr on glucose

EXCESS
surplus is stored as:
- glycogen in skeletal muscles & liver (limited)
- triglycerides in adipose tissue (unlimited)

LACK
-activation of gluconeogenesis
→ in liver from non-sugar molecules
pyruvate, glycerol, amino acids
→causes: fasting, starvation, low-carb diet

42
Q

glucose level:

hormone regulation

A

pancreatic hormones(2):
insulin → Beta cells
glucagon → alpha cells

Insulin: BEI
- binds to cell to open so transporters for glucose can go in
- glucose enters cells so lower blood glucose level
- increases glycogen storage thus prevents gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis

glucagon:
- glucose stops entering cells so increase bloof glucose level
- increase glycogenolysis (breakdown)
- increase gluconeogenesis

  • -

HUMAN BIO (26 decks)

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