cloning and biotechnology Flashcards
by what process are natural clones of plants formed by?
vegetative propogation
name 4 ways in which natural cloning in plants takes place
Rhizomes
Runners
Stem Tubers
Bulbs
what is vegetative propogation?
production of plant clones from non reproductive tissue
how is natural cloning in plants used in horticulture?
to increase numbers of plants cheaply and quickly
by grafting or taking cuttings
how do you take cuttings?
using a scalpel take a cutting of 5-10cm obliquely from a non flowering shoot
reduce the number of leaves
add rooting powder (hormones such as auxin) to the cut end
plant the cutting and water well
place plastic bag over cutting
what is micropropogation?
the process of making large numbers of genetically identical offspring from a single parent using tissue culture - artificial cloning of plants
discribe the process of tissue culture
take a small sample of meristematic tissue from a plant you want to clone
sterilise cells to kill any microorganisms as bacteria and fungi will compete for nutrients in the plant so growth rate will be reduced
place cells in culture medium containing nutrients and hormones - mass of cells called a callose forms by mitosis
callus is divided into clumps of cells and placed into new culture medium which again contains hormones and nutrients this grows and forms plantlets
plantlets are planted
give 4 advantages of artificial plant cloning
desirable characteristics are always passed on to clones
plants can be produced in any season as environment is controlled
less space is required
lots of plants produced quickly
give 4 disadvantages of artificial plant cloning
undesirable characteristics are always passed on
no genetic variability
production costs are very high
contamination during tissue culture by microorganisms can be disasterous
how are natural animal clones formed?
identical twins are formed when the early embryo splits to form two separate embryos with the same genetic information
what are 2 ways of artificial animal cloning?
artificial embryo twinning
enucleation and somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)
describe artificial embryo twinning
egg cell of cow is extracted and fertilised in a petri dish
fertilised egg cell divides
while cells are still totipotent idividual cells are separated and put into separate petri dish and an embryo develops from each
embryos are implanted into surrogate
embryos continue to develop to term forming genetically identical offspring
describe somatic cell nuclear transfer
nucleus is removed from somatic cell of an adult mammal
nucleus is removed from mature egg cell of female
nucleus of somatic cell is inserted into egg cell and given mild electric shock so that it fuses and begins dividing
an embryo forms and is inserted into surrogate
clone of the organism that the somatic cell was taken from is formed
what is biotechnology?
the industrial use of living organisms to produce food, drugs and other products
why are microorganisms usually used in biotechnology?
ideal growth conditions are easily created
short life cycle so grow rapidly under the right conditions
can be grown on a range of inexpensive materials so they are economical
how is biotechnology used in brewing?
yeast is added to grain and respires anaerobically (fermentation) using glucose from the grain produced ethanol and carbon dioxide
how is biotechnology used in baking?
yeast is used to make bread rise by co2 production in fermentation of sugar
how is biotechnology used in cheese making?
rennet contains enzymes that clot milk from GM yeast
lactic acid bacteria make milk sour and clot
how is biotechnology used in yogurt production?
lactic acid bacteria are used to clot the milk to thicken it
how is biotechnology used in penicillin production?
fungus from the penicillin genus is grown under stress in industrial fermentors so it produces penicillin to stop other bacteria growing and competeing for resources
penicillin is collected and processed
how is biotechnology used in insulin production?
GM bacteria that contain the human gene for insulin production are grown in industrial fermentors and collected and purified
how is biotechnology used in bioremediation?
bioremediation is using organisms to remove pollutants
it involves giving bacteria that naturally occur at contaminated sites to remove pollutants nutrients and enhanced growing conditions- breaks down into less harmful products
how do you culture microorganisms?
transfer microorganisms to an agar plate using sterile implements and then icubate
what are some aseptic techniques?
disinfect work surface
work near a busen flame so that miccroorganisms in the air will be drawn away
sterilise instruments to transfer cultures before and after use by passing through flame
pass broth contain through flame when opening and closing to stop microorganism in the air going in
minimise time that the agar plate is open
sterilise glassware before use
wear lab coat and gloves and tie hair back
to maximise yeild from fermentation what do you do?
control pH- monitoring by pH probe keep at optimum
control temperature- water jacket and temp probe with negative feedback system- keep at optimum
add nutrients and oxygen- probes to indicate dropping levels so they can be resolved
mix - so that all microorganisms have access to nutrients and oxygen
remove waste such as CO2
prevent entry of microorganisms so they dont compete
what are the 4 phases of a standard growth curve in chronological order?
lag phase
log phase
stationary phase
death phase
why are immobilised enzymes used?
so that the product isnt mixed with enzymes at the end of the reaction so they dont need separating
name 3 ways of immobilising enzymes
encapsulation in microcapsules which act as partially permeable membranes
trapping in silica gel matrix
surface immobilisation- covalently bond to collagen or cellulose fibres
what is immobilised glucose isomerase used for?
converting glucose to fructose
what is immobilised penicillin acylase used for?
formation of semi synthetic penicillins which some penicillin resistant organisms are not resistant to
what is immobilised lactase used for?
the hydrolysis of lactase to glucose and galactose
what is immobillised amino acylase used for?
forming pure samples of L-amino acids (synthesis of amino acids forms a mixture of L and D but L is used in body processes)
what is immobilised glucoamylase used for?
the conversion of dextrins to glucose after amylase anzymes have broken down starch into dextrins
what is a primary metabolite?
molecule needed for cells normal growth such as glucose
what are 6 pros of artificial cloning in animals?
desirable characteristics are always past on
infertile animals can be reproduced
increases population of endangered species and increases biodiversity
can be used to test new drugs on
used by farmers to increase the number of animals with desireable features
can clone embryonic stem cells for treatment of diseases
give 4 reasons against artificial animal cloning?
it is difficult and time consuming
no genetic variability
will not live as long as normal
using a source of stem cells is seen as destroying life by some
4 pros of using microorganisms in food production
microorganisms can be grown on many different organic products including waste material
can be grown quickly, easily and cheaply with simple growth requirements so production cost is low and less land is needed
can be produced where food is normally difficult to produce
single cell protein is considered healthier
4 cons of using microorganisms in food production
difficult to ensure no contamination as many microorganisms have the same growing conditions, contamination can be very dangerous
people dont like idea of eating food thats grown off waste
not much natural flavour so additives need to be added
can produce toxins if not in right conditions
3 pros of using immobilised enzymes
columns can be washed and reused saving costs as dont need to rebuy enzymes
product isnt mixed with enzymes so dont need separating- reducing downstream processes
immobilised enzymes are more stable so less likely to denature at extreme pH or high temp
3 cons of using immobilised enzymes
extra equipment needed is expensive
initial cost of immobilised ezymes is greater than normal enzymes
immobilisation can lead to reduction in enzyme activity
what do you use a the source of DNA for genetic engineering to make insulin?
mRNA coding for insulin in pancreatic cells
how do you use mRNA in genetic engineering?
convert it into a strand on complementary DNA by treating with reverse transcriptase (c.DNA)
