cloning and biotechnology

Question 1

by what process are natural clones of plants formed by?

Answer 1

vegetative propogation

Question 2

name 4 ways in which natural cloning in plants takes place

Answer 2

Rhizomes

Runners

Stem Tubers

Bulbs

Question 3

what is vegetative propogation?

Answer 3

production of plant clones from non reproductive tissue

Question 4

how is natural cloning in plants used in horticulture?

Answer 4

to increase numbers of plants cheaply and quickly

by grafting or taking cuttings

Question 5

how do you take cuttings?

Answer 5

using a scalpel take a cutting of 5-10cm obliquely from a non flowering shoot

reduce the number of leaves

add rooting powder (hormones such as auxin) to the cut end

plant the cutting and water well

place plastic bag over cutting

Question 6

what is micropropogation?

Answer 6

the process of making large numbers of genetically identical offspring from a single parent using tissue culture - artificial cloning of plants

Question 7

discribe the process of tissue culture

Answer 7

take a small sample of meristematic tissue from a plant you want to clone

sterilise cells to kill any microorganisms as bacteria and fungi will compete for nutrients in the plant so growth rate will be reduced

place cells in culture medium containing nutrients and hormones - mass of cells called a callose forms by mitosis

callus is divided into clumps of cells and placed into new culture medium which again contains hormones and nutrients this grows and forms plantlets

plantlets are planted

Question 8

give 4 advantages of artificial plant cloning

Answer 8

desirable characteristics are always passed on to clones

plants can be produced in any season as environment is controlled

less space is required

lots of plants produced quickly

Question 9

give 4 disadvantages of artificial plant cloning

Answer 9

undesirable characteristics are always passed on

no genetic variability

production costs are very high

contamination during tissue culture by microorganisms can be disasterous

Question 10

how are natural animal clones formed?

Answer 10

identical twins are formed when the early embryo splits to form two separate embryos with the same genetic information

Question 11

what are 2 ways of artificial animal cloning?

Answer 11

artificial embryo twinning

enucleation and somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)

Question 12

describe artificial embryo twinning

Answer 12

egg cell of cow is extracted and fertilised in a petri dish

fertilised egg cell divides

while cells are still totipotent idividual cells are separated and put into separate petri dish and an embryo develops from each

embryos are implanted into surrogate

embryos continue to develop to term forming genetically identical offspring

Question 13

describe somatic cell nuclear transfer

Answer 13

nucleus is removed from somatic cell of an adult mammal

nucleus is removed from mature egg cell of female

nucleus of somatic cell is inserted into egg cell and given mild electric shock so that it fuses and begins dividing

an embryo forms and is inserted into surrogate

clone of the organism that the somatic cell was taken from is formed

Question 14

what is biotechnology?

Answer 14

the industrial use of living organisms to produce food, drugs and other products

Question 15

why are microorganisms usually used in biotechnology?

Answer 15

ideal growth conditions are easily created

short life cycle so grow rapidly under the right conditions

can be grown on a range of inexpensive materials so they are economical

Question 16

how is biotechnology used in brewing?

Answer 16

yeast is added to grain and respires anaerobically (fermentation) using glucose from the grain produced ethanol and carbon dioxide

Question 17

how is biotechnology used in baking?

Answer 17

yeast is used to make bread rise by co2 production in fermentation of sugar

Question 18

how is biotechnology used in cheese making?

Answer 18

rennet contains enzymes that clot milk from GM yeast

lactic acid bacteria make milk sour and clot

Question 19

how is biotechnology used in yogurt production?

Answer 19

lactic acid bacteria are used to clot the milk to thicken it

Question 20

how is biotechnology used in penicillin production?

Answer 20

fungus from the penicillin genus is grown under stress in industrial fermentors so it produces penicillin to stop other bacteria growing and competeing for resources

penicillin is collected and processed

Question 21

how is biotechnology used in insulin production?

Answer 21

GM bacteria that contain the human gene for insulin production are grown in industrial fermentors and collected and purified

Question 22

how is biotechnology used in bioremediation?

Answer 22

bioremediation is using organisms to remove pollutants

it involves giving bacteria that naturally occur at contaminated sites to remove pollutants nutrients and enhanced growing conditions- breaks down into less harmful products

Question 23

how do you culture microorganisms?

Answer 23

transfer microorganisms to an agar plate using sterile implements and then icubate

Question 24

what are some aseptic techniques?

Answer 24

disinfect work surface

work near a busen flame so that miccroorganisms in the air will be drawn away

sterilise instruments to transfer cultures before and after use by passing through flame

pass broth contain through flame when opening and closing to stop microorganism in the air going in

minimise time that the agar plate is open

sterilise glassware before use

wear lab coat and gloves and tie hair back

Question 25

to maximise yeild from fermentation what do you do?

Answer 25

control pH- monitoring by pH probe keep at optimum

control temperature- water jacket and temp probe with negative feedback system- keep at optimum

add nutrients and oxygen- probes to indicate dropping levels so they can be resolved

mix - so that all microorganisms have access to nutrients and oxygen

remove waste such as CO2

prevent entry of microorganisms so they dont compete

Question 26

what are the 4 phases of a standard growth curve in chronological order?

Answer 26

lag phase

log phase

stationary phase

death phase

Question 27

why are immobilised enzymes used?

Answer 27

so that the product isnt mixed with enzymes at the end of the reaction so they dont need separating

Question 28

name 3 ways of immobilising enzymes

Answer 28

encapsulation in microcapsules which act as partially permeable membranes

trapping in silica gel matrix

surface immobilisation- covalently bond to collagen or cellulose fibres

Question 29

what is immobilised glucose isomerase used for?

Answer 29

converting glucose to fructose

Question 30

what is immobilised penicillin acylase used for?

Answer 30

formation of semi synthetic penicillins which some penicillin resistant organisms are not resistant to

Question 31

what is immobilised lactase used for?

Answer 31

the hydrolysis of lactase to glucose and galactose

Question 32

what is immobillised amino acylase used for?

Answer 32

forming pure samples of L-amino acids (synthesis of amino acids forms a mixture of L and D but L is used in body processes)

Question 33

what is immobilised glucoamylase used for?

Answer 33

the conversion of dextrins to glucose after amylase anzymes have broken down starch into dextrins

Question 34

what is a primary metabolite?

Answer 34

molecule needed for cells normal growth such as glucose

Question 35

what are 6 pros of artificial cloning in animals?

Answer 35

desirable characteristics are always past on

infertile animals can be reproduced

increases population of endangered species and increases biodiversity

can be used to test new drugs on

used by farmers to increase the number of animals with desireable features

can clone embryonic stem cells for treatment of diseases

Question 36

give 4 reasons against artificial animal cloning?

Answer 36

it is difficult and time consuming

no genetic variability

will not live as long as normal

using a source of stem cells is seen as destroying life by some

Question 37

4 pros of using microorganisms in food production

Answer 37

microorganisms can be grown on many different organic products including waste material

can be grown quickly, easily and cheaply with simple growth requirements so production cost is low and less land is needed

can be produced where food is normally difficult to produce

single cell protein is considered healthier

Question 38

4 cons of using microorganisms in food production

Answer 38

difficult to ensure no contamination as many microorganisms have the same growing conditions, contamination can be very dangerous

people dont like idea of eating food thats grown off waste

not much natural flavour so additives need to be added

can produce toxins if not in right conditions

Question 39

3 pros of using immobilised enzymes

Answer 39

columns can be washed and reused saving costs as dont need to rebuy enzymes

product isnt mixed with enzymes so dont need separating- reducing downstream processes

immobilised enzymes are more stable so less likely to denature at extreme pH or high temp

Question 40

3 cons of using immobilised enzymes

Answer 40

extra equipment needed is expensive

initial cost of immobilised ezymes is greater than normal enzymes

immobilisation can lead to reduction in enzyme activity

Question 41

what do you use a the source of DNA for genetic engineering to make insulin?

Answer 41

mRNA coding for insulin in pancreatic cells

Question 42

how do you use mRNA in genetic engineering?

Answer 42

convert it into a strand on complementary DNA by treating with reverse transcriptase (c.DNA)