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Systems > Class 8 > Flashcards

Class 8 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the Cardiovascular System?

A

Heart & continuous circuit of vessels that transport blood from heart to lungs & body tissues & from tissues back to heart

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2
Q

Where is the heart located?

A

• In the chest cavity between the two lungs, in space called the mediastinum.
• Its placement is largely central—about 60% of the heart lies to the left of the midline.

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3
Q

What is the heart shaped like?

A

• Shaped like an inverted cone—broad top section supports large blood vessels.
• Slightly pointed base, called apex, is at caudal end of left ventricle.

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4
Q

What is the apex of the heart and where is it?

A

Slightly pointed base, called apex, is at caudal end of left ventricle.

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5
Q

What is the heart in direct contact with?

A

both lungs, & with diaphragm inferiorly

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6
Q

How big is the heart and what rib levels does it span between when it is it’s normal size?

A

Spans between rib levels 3-6 when it is its normal size, which is about dimensions of a fist.

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7
Q

What percentage of the body is In a fluid state and where is the fluid in the body?

A

• About 55% of body is in a fluid state
• Half in tissue interstitial spaces & half in the streaming blood & lymph.

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8
Q

All of the blood in circulation travels out of & back to the heart ________ per minute at rest and up to ________ per minute during activity.

A

• once
• six times

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9
Q

What is the heart?

A

• Pump that keeps blood moving through this circuit.
• It is a closed circuit except that it “leaks” fluid in both directions at the capillaries.

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10
Q

The heart is a closed circuit except ________________________.

A

that it “leaks” fluid in both directions at the capillaries.

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11
Q

What is the essential purpose of the cardiovascular system?

A

Delivery of fluid to & from capillary beds according to needs of supplied tissues is the essential purpose of the CV system; heart must be resilient enough to match these needs.

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12
Q

What are the atria?

A

There are two atria, one on each side of the heart. They sit on top of the ventricles, & function as blood receiving chambers.

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13
Q

Where does right atrium receive blood from?

A

Receives blood from superior vena cava (venous return from body tissues above diaphragm), the inferior vena cava (VR from below the diaphragm) & the coronary sinus (VR from the heart’s own tissues).

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14
Q

Where does left atrium receive blood from?

A

Receives re-oxygenated blood from lungs.

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15
Q

Where does blood flow in the atria?

A

Blood inflows passively (RA is actually under slightly negative pressure), & continues down into ventricles. Atria contract to push final fill volume into their ventricles.

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16
Q

What are the ventricles?

A

Two ventricles, right and left. They are the pumping chambers of the heart.

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17
Q

What is the right ventricle?

A

Takes de-oxygenated blood that has returned to heart from body tissues & pumps it into the lungs in order that it can release CO2 & take on fresh O2.

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18
Q

What is the left ventricle?

A

Takes refreshed blood that has arrived from lungs & pumps it into the aorta, from which it travels along arterial system for distribution throughout the body.

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19
Q

What is Perfusion?

A

Supply of oxygenated blood to a tissue consistent with its current metabolic need; ventricles are the first step & power behind this delivery system.

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20
Q

What are valves?

A

Act as gateways that sit in open position when blood needs to pass through them, & then close to prevent blood from backflowing.

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21
Q

Where is the tricuspid value?

A

Between right atrium & right ventricle

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22
Q

Where is the mitral/bicuspid?

A

Between atrium & ventricle on the left side.

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23
Q

Where is the pulmonary/pulmonic valve?

A

Between right ventricle & pulmonic trunk (becomes pulmonary arteries)

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24
Q

Where is the aortic value located?

A

Aortic valve is located between the left ventricle & the aorta.

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25
Q

What is the function of cusps or leaflets on valves?

A

Each valve has cusps or leaflets that are easily pushed open to accommodate the desired direction of blood flow but close up to resist opposite-direction flow.

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26
Q

How many cusps does each valve have?

A

Each valve has three cusps except for the mitral valve, which has two.

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27
Q

The aortic and pulmonary valves are also referred to as _______________.

A

semilunar (SL)

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28
Q

tricuspid and mitral valves are the _____________________.

A

atrioventricular (AV) valves

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29
Q

AV valves are supported by ________________.

A

papillary muscles

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30
Q

Papillary muscles are?

A

Extensions of the ventricle wall that attach to cusps of their valve via chordae tendineae.

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31
Q

What happens when the ventriclewall contracts?

A

Papillary muscles contract too. They hold the valve flaps closed during the powerful ventricular contraction—otherwise they would tend to blow open backwards.

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32
Q

T/F semilunar valves have supporting muscles & close entirely because of their structure, much like the valves in the veins of the leg.

A

*False
Semilunar valves do not have supporting muscles & close entirely because of their structure, much like the valves in the veins of the leg.

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33
Q

What creates “Lub” sound?

A

Closure of the AV valves creates the first heart sound (lub, or S1).

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34
Q

What creates “Dub” sound?

A

When the SL valves close, the second heart sound, dub or S2, is made.

35
Q

When disease/damage causes a valve to open poorly or incompletely, it is referred to as ____________.

A

stenotic

36
Q

When the problem is an inability to close properly, the valve is called?

A

regurgitative or regurgitating

37
Q

What is Endocardium?

A

Inner layer of heart, one in contact with blood. Each chamber cavity is lined with endocardium; valve leaflets are an extension of it. Endocardium consists of loose areolar connective tissue & endothelial cells. Surface is very smooth to minimize friction. Endocardium is continuous with inner layer of blood vessels.

38
Q

What is Myocardium?

A

Myocardial layer consists of specialized cardiac muscle cells, which are responsible for contraction actions of heart wall. It is by far thickest layer.

39
Q

What is Pericardium?

A

Serous sac in which the heart sits

40
Q

What is visceral pericardium?

A

Inner layer, called visceral pericardium (AKA epicardium) is firmly attached to outer rim of myocardium.

41
Q

What is parietal pericardium?

A

Outer layer of pericardial sac & fused to its outer surface is the protective, relatively inelastic fibrous pericardium

42
Q

What is the fibrous pericardium?

A

Resists excessive stretching of myocardial cells. Attaches to central tendon of the diaphragm, adventitia layer of the aorta, superior vena cava & pulmonary trunk, & the sternum & trachea.

43
Q

What is the pericardial cavity?

A

Space between the two layers that contains serous fluid. Its purpose is to reduce friction. This fluid-filled sac design allows heart to beat in relative freedom while still being anchored within the chest cavity.

44
Q

The heart’s own blood supply is called the ________________.

A

coronary circulation

45
Q

The hearts own blood supply (coronary circulation) consists of?

A

coronary arteries & coronary veins

46
Q

The left and right coronary arteries offshoot from the ______________ – their branches distribute ________________________________.

A

• aortic arch
• blood throughout the heart wall

47
Q

The venous drainage of the heart is transported through the ______________________, which terminates in the _________________.

A

• coronary vein system
• coronary sinus

48
Q

What is the coronary sinus?

A

Large vein that empties into the right atrium.

49
Q

T/F The heart is a very metabolically active organ that requires constant, substantial perfusion.

A
  • True
    The heart is a very metabolically active organ that requires constant, substantial perfusion. Coronary artery disease is unfortunately common; it is the most common cause of heart attacks.
50
Q

What is the most common cause of heart attacks?

A

Coronary artery disease is unfortunately common; it is the most common cause of heart attacks.

51
Q

The heart has an “electrical” system that transmits a signal through the muscular wall, resulting in ________________ of the heart chambers. It is a self-contained organization that can work independent of neural controls, although those controls are necessary to help the heart adjust to the ______________________________.

A

• contraction
• the body’s metabolic needs

52
Q

The signal that sets this transmission in action originates in the _____________________, which is often called the heart’s _________________. Its cells are specialized non-contractile cells that are especially sensitive to _____________. These cells generate a recurrent action potential about 100 times per minute.

A

• sinoatrial (SA) node
• “pacemaker”
• sodium

53
Q

The SA node depolarization wave travels in two directions which are?

A
  1. throughout the RA wall & over to LA wall (via Bachmann’s bundle)
  2. to the atrioventricular (AV) node. The two atria contract right away, but the pathway to AV node creates slight delay. Signal exits the AV node to AV bundle (bundle of His), which splits into right & left bundle branches that travel through septum to supply their corresponding ventricle.
54
Q

Bundle branches terminate in __________________ that communicate the signal to the muscle cells (usually called fibres) of the _________________, including the ______________.

A

• Purkinje fibres
• myocardium
• papillary muscles

55
Q

_________________ are specialized for signal conduction through the heart wall. Their membranes contain __________________, which create several points of rapid communication among adjacent cells. As the Purkinje fibres distribute the action potential, intercalated discs facilitate its movement from cell to cell & muscle fibres contract virtually simultaneously.

A

• Myocardial fibres
• intercalated discs

56
Q

What is a heart beat?

A

Simultaneous contraction of the two ventricles resulting in expulsion of blood from heart (from the right side to lungs & from the left side into systemic circulation)

57
Q

What is heart rate?

A

The number of times the heart beats per minute

58
Q

The _____________________ have specialized features beyond their intercalated discs. Their contraction duration is ____________, and their relaxation phase is ______________ compared to skeletal muscle. They also contract more strongly in response to stretch (Frank-Starling mechanism). These features are well suited to healthy heart function.

A

• myocardial fibres
• longer
•quicker

59
Q

What are Arterial Baroreceptors?

A

located in the aortic arch & the internal carotid arteries, these are stretch receptors stimulated by distortion of the arterial wall with pressure changes (↑ or ↓); they initiate reflex autonomic responses to ↑ or ↓ the cardiac output, heart rate and b.v. tone.

60
Q

What are Low Pressure Baroreceptors?

A

found in large systemic veins, pulmonary vessels, & the walls of the right atrium and the ventricles, they generate signals that influence distribution of blood volume in different parts of the system; involved in managing average (mean) blood pressure.

61
Q

The heart is directly or indirectly responsive to a number of influences that range from?

A

• physical activity level
• emotional state
• autonomic regulation of viscera (e.g., digestion
being prioritized over skeletal muscles)
• endocrine signals (e.g., from thyroid, adrenals)
• afferent inputs (such as from the blood vessel
wall receptors)
• body temperature
• specific tissue metabolic needs

62
Q

What is the The primary mechanism for influencing the
heart’s beat and rate?

A

The primary mechanism for influencing the
heart’s beat and rate is via autonomic inputs to the
SA and AV nodes. Strength/intensity of ventricular
contraction can also be stimulated. Parasympathetic
influences are generally stronger and predominant, but

63
Q

What is Sympathetic Input (via T1-T4)?

A

» increases overall activity in heart
» can increase SA node impulse rate to as high as 200+/minute (increases sodium permeability of nodal cells)
» reduces conduction delay between SA & AV nodes, speeding transmission
» increases conduction velocity from AV node, so heart rate is increased
» direct symp n.s. influence on atrial & ventricular fibres can increase force of contraction
» in general, faster the heart rate, the less time available during fill phase, so stroke volumes are smaller & heart wall perfusion is reduced; symp n.s. response includes ways of adapting, but they are necessarily time-limited
» creates an effective heart under stress conditions, especially in healthy circumstances

64
Q

What is Parasympathetic Input (via vagus nerve)?

A

» has most consistent impact on SA node (is predominant most of the time), bringing its impulse rate to 60-80/min (“vagal tone”)
» can significantly slow AV node transmission
» can decrease the heart rate to as low as 30-50
» involves large stroke volumes in the context of
a slower heart
» creates a slow, steady efficient heart

65
Q

What is systole?

A

Contraction, or pumping, phase of the cardiac cycle

66
Q

What is diastole?

A

Resting phase of the cardiac cycle in which chambers refill with blood & heart itself is supplied with nutrients

67
Q

What is the cardiac cycle?

A

Period from the beginning of one heart beat to the beginning of the next

68
Q

The cardiac cycle is a 5-stage set of events what are these stages?

A

● During diastolic phase, all four chambers are relaxed
& blood is flowing into both atria—since AV valves are open, it also passively moves down into the ventricles.
● Next, SA node fires & atria contract (atrial systole). Ventricles are still relaxed (ventricular diastole) & about 75% filled with blood. Atrial contraction pushes in last volume of blood before ventricles contract.
● AV node fires & ventricles begin to build tension in preparation for contraction. AV valves close & semilunar valves open.
● Ventricles contract (ventricular systole); RV sends blood into pulmonary circulation & LV ejects blood into the aorta. These walls contract very forcefully, with all cells working in concert.
● Ventricular myocardial cells relax quickly & profoundly. The semilunar valves close, AV valves open, & full heart diastolic fill phase begins again. Atria & ventricles undergo systole at different times, intervals of the cardiac cycle are typically defined based on ventricular diastole & ventricular systole.
● Myocardial cells are themselves nourished with fresh arterial blood while they are relaxed, in other words during diastolic phase. Under normal conditions the cardiac cycle is about 60% diastole & 40% systole at rest. The duration of systolic phase is largely fixed, so when heart speeds up
diastolic time is reduced. This is workable for short bursts, but if heart rate is chronically increased myocardial nutrition can become short-changed

69
Q

The aorta, largest artery, receives oxygenated blood from ___________________, which ejects it at high pressure. Aorta & its branches (the arterial tree) convey this blood to ___________________________________.

A

• left ventricle
• tissue beds throughout the body

70
Q

T/F The aorta and large arteries have good elastic recoil?

A
  • True
    The aorta & large arteries have good elastic recoil, meaning that they stretch to accommodate the blood from LV then rebound back to normal size. When they do this, blood is propelled forward (propulsion role).
71
Q

The small arteries lead into _____________, which convey blood into tissue beds’ capillaries. These smaller vessels have muscular walls, meaning their ____________ can adjust to increase/decrease blood flow to specific tissue areas based on ____________________.

A

• arterioles
• lumina
• need (distribution role)

72
Q

Coronary arteries, deliver blood to supply _____________. Located at proximal end of aortic arch. Situated just beyond aortic valve. When LV ejects blood into __________, valve flaps are pressed against openings to coronary aa., covering them & preventing blood inflow. As blood passes over aortic arch, last volume will not clear arch & falls back. At this point LV has relaxed & ___________ valve has closed, so final blood cannot re-enter ventricle. It flows into coronary aa., meaning that it can perfuse the ________________ of heart chambers when they are at rest.

A

• heart wall
• aorta
• aortic
• muscle fibres

73
Q

The body’s system of veins brings blood _____________________________________________________.

A

away from the tissues after they have depleted it of oxygen and nutrients and given it their metabolic wastes.

74
Q

Following along vessels that become increasingly larger, this _______________ blood enters the RA of the heart.

A

“venous return”

75
Q

The body’s lymph drainage joins the _____________________________________________________.

A

venous return in the subclavian veins that drain into superior vena cava.

76
Q

In addition to returning blood to heart. Large veins act as “blood reservoirs” or _____________________. This means they can help adjust the percentage of total blood volume in the arterial system (and therefore the blood pressure) by constricting or dilating to accommodate ____________________________________. For example, when they dilate to hold more blood, volume in the arteries decreases & BP goes down.

A

• capacitance vessels
• desired amount of blood for that moment

77
Q

What are the 3 layers of all blood vessel walls?

A

» Tunica Intima/Interna
» Tunica Media
» Tunica Adventitia/Externa

78
Q

What is the Tunica Intima/Interna?

A

Made of endothelial cells & some elastin, is in contact with bloodstream; in veins that work against gravity, also contains valves.

79
Q

What is the Tunica Media?

A

Contains variable amounts of elastin & smooth muscle, depending on role of the blood vessel. Large arteries have big elastin component; large veins have balanced mix, while smaller vessels have more muscle.

80
Q

small arteries & arterioles, are vessels involved in ___________________________ according to needs of moment. Arterioles are entry point into capillaries—their muscular walls ____________ to prevent or slow inflow into their tissue beds, or alternatively _________ to create larger lumen that encourages flow. Blood vessel smooth muscle is largely innervated by _______________________. In skeletal muscles & most body tissues, symp n.s. is exclusive innervator, in some high-specialization situations, such as the circulation to thyroid, genitals & glands of GI tract, sympathetic & parasympathetic inputs are both involved.

A

• shunting blood in & out of tissues
• constrict
• relax
• sympathetic nervous system

81
Q

What is Tunica Adventitia/Externa?

A

Outermost layer of blood vessel largely consists of collagen. A protective connective tissue wrap. In large arteries it also includes an elastic layer. Vaso vasorum (vessels of the vessels) contained in this layer—especially prominent in larger aa. & vv., this is network of small vessels that supply the walls. Nerve branches that innervate tunica media muscles also enter here.

82
Q

Capillary walls have only _______ layer—they are semiporous, made of _________________, & just one cell thick. They are organized into networks or “beds” around which their supplied cells are arranged. Materials necessary for cellular nutrition & work either diffuse through ___________________________________ or transported through the ________________________, & wastes are returned back to the bloodstream in similar fashion. Arterioles are inflow vessels & venules the outflow.

A

• one
• endothelial cells
• capillary pores (spaces between wall cells)
• walls into tissue interstitium

83
Q

Tiny lymphatic vessels are also present in the tissue beds, interwoven with the capillaries. They pick up “large garbage” in the form of dead cells or bacteria, damaged structural components, etc. that are too sizable to move into the capillary. Through removing these elements that have a high osmotic draw, the lymphatics help control _______________ in the __________.

A

fluid volume in the interstitium

84
Q

Blood shunting in & out of tissue beds is also important for temperature control. When body becomes overheated, or when heat is applied to body surface, arterioles __________ & blood flow to & through subcutaneous tissues ____________. Heat is dissipated from surface blood vessels into surrounding air. On the other hand, when body is cooled, surface tissue vessels _____________, sending blood deeper to preserve internal heat.

A

• dilate
• increases
• constrict

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