Class 7: Insight and metacognition Flashcards
1
Q
What is the difference between convergent and divergent thinking?
A
Convergent thinking involves using logical and systematic methods to arrive at a single correct solution to a problem, while divergent thinking involves generating multiple possible solutions to a problem and exploring different ways of thinking about a problem.
2
Q
According to Topolinski and Reber (2010), which of the following activities is most likely to lead to the “Aha” experience? a. Engaging in repetitive, mindless tasks b. Solving complex problems using trial-and-error c. Focusing on a single task for an extended period of time d. Engaging in activities that require minimal cognitive effort
A
b) Solving complex problems using trial-and-error
3
Q
Explain “phenomenology” according to feelings-as-information theory.
A
Phenomenology carries information that helps us to efficiently navigate the world and to reason appropriately
4
Q
Define the “Aha” experience.
A
A sudden moment of understanding or realisation.
5
Q
True or false: The study of cognitive and neurocomputational mechanisms of insight is focused on exploring the conscious and deliberate decision-making process.
A
FALSE
6
Q
What are the main characteristics of the experience of insight?
A
The main characteristics are Suddennes, Ease, Positive Affect, and Truth and Confidence
7
Q
Describe judgment of truth
A
the judgment of truth involves determining whether something is factually accurate or not. This process is a key component of critical thinking and is essential for making informed decisions and forming valid conclusions.
8
Q
What did John Nash say when asked about his belief in supernatural beings and how does it relate to the human conundrum of discerning true and false ideas?
A
When asked about his belief in supernatural beings, John Nash responded that the ideas he had about them came to him in the same way as his mathematical ideas, so he took them seriously. This example exposes the basic human conundrum of discerning the difference between a true and false idea, especially in situations where time is limited.
9
Q
Insights usually follow ____ processing and appear _____.
A
(1) Implicit; (2) Unexpectedly.
10
Q
The crucial prediction of Sascha Topolinski and Rolf Reber is aha experiences entailing mild pleasure and confidence can be induced experimentally, thus avoid illusions of insight.Is that true or false?
A
False,it creates illusions of insight.
11
Q
What is the difference between the “Aha!” experience and insight?
A
The “Aha!” experience refers to the sudden realisation or solution to a problem, while insight refers to the gradual process of problem-solving.
12
Q
True or False: Conscious effort and deliberate thinking are the primary factors that trigger the “Aha” experience.
A
False
13
Q
According to the ‘Eureka Heuristics’ article, what is one common theme found so far about insights?
A
Insights must somehow draw on past experiences or memory in order to provide valuable information for ongoing problem solving processes.
14
Q
What are the four main characteristics of insight discussed in the article by Topolinski & Reber?
A
Suddenness, ease, positive affect, and truth and confidence.
15
Q
What’s the difference between insight and intuition?
A
Intuition tends to be more gradual and non-specific, whereas insights are sudden and tend to involve specific reportable content. Intuitions are also often associated with System 1 errors and biases, while insights tend to predict accurate solutions.
16
Q
True or False: The authors propose that the P3 event-related potential (ERP) component is an electrophysiological marker of the restructuring process during insight.
A
Answer: True. Explanation: Laukkonen et al. propose that the P3 event-related potential (ERP) component is an electrophysiological marker of the restructuring process during insight. The P3 component is thought to reflect the updating of mental representations and the allocation of attentional resources during problem-solving. The authors argue that the P3 component may be a neural signature of the restructuring process that occurs during insight problem-solving.
17
Q
ture or false: when a solution to a problem pops into a person’s mid, information that has ben difficult to process can be processed more fluently.
A
ture
18
Q
What brain regions are associated with the insight process?
A
The anterior cingulate cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and striatum are brain regions associated with the insight process.
19
Q
What are the four main characteristics of insight?
A
Suddenness, ease, positive affect and the feeling of being right.
20
Q
What is processing fluency?
A
Processing fluency is the ease and speed with which information processing succeeds independent of content.
21
Q
What are the main characteristics when someone experiences insight?
A
Suddenness, ease, positive affect, truth and confidence
22
Q
What constitutes Eureka Heuristic?
A
It is the utilisation of our prior learning to allow us to quickly decide whether or not we should trust a new idea, this involves assessing a new idea based upon our existing knowledge and beliefs and thus making a decision about whether we then accept or reject the new idea.
23
Q
What is the role of expertise in facilitating the “Aha!” experience?
A
Expertise can facilitate the “Aha!” experience by allowing individuals to recognise patterns and make connections more easily, as well as providing a deeper understanding of the problem domain.
24
Q
True or False: The remote associate’s task (RAT) requires participants to identify three related words.
A
False The RAT requires participants to identify a word that is related to three other words, rather than two. This is an important detail as it highlights the specific nature of the task and the cognitive processes involved in solving it.
25
When a scientist, an inventor, or an artist has a new idea, they will automaticly use_________?
Knowledge and expertise
26
What are the cognitive and neurocomputational mechanisms of insight?
The processes in the brain that enable the selection of ideas leading to insight.
27
How can the "Aha!" experience be facilitated/triggered?
The "Aha!" experience can be facilitated or triggered by presenting problems that require insight, using incubation periods, and encouraging a positive mood.
28
What are four things that insights have in common with heuristics and biases?
The fact that they are automatic, largely involuntary, linked to emotions, and are foremost adaptive.
29
True or False? Feelings of insight tend to occur alongside incorrect solutions
FALSE
30
What is Metacognition
Thinking about thinking. Reflecting and evaluating on cognitive processes to improve performance and understanding.
31
Why is an insight heuristic necessary, and how does it help individuals judge the validity of spontaneous ideas?
Answer: An insight heuristic is necessary because spontaneous ideas that emerge from implicit processing cannot always be evaluated through step-wise analytical problem solving. Instead, these ideas must be "intuited" as good ideas based on a feeling of rightness, which distinguishes them from other competing ideas. An insight heuristic helps individuals judge the validity of spontaneous ideas by providing a framework for evaluating them based on factors such as feasibility, novelty, and value.
32
What is processing fluency?
Processing fluency is the ease with which information is processed in the cognitive system
33
Define the term “Aha experience”.
"Aha" experience --- This refers to the sudden moment of insight or realization that one experiences when solving a problem or gaining new understanding. It is often accompanied by a feeling of pleasure or excitement and is characterized by the perception of a sudden shift in perspective or a novel solution to a problem.
34
What is the eureka heuristic?
Feelings of insight that act as a metacognitive heuristic which permits us to make decisions about if an idea is trustworthy (without prior learning)
35
True / False According to Hansen, Dechene, and Wanke's replication of the experiment by Reber and Schwarz, fluent statements were judged as more truthful when they appeared in a block of less fluent statements.
False - Whittlesea and Williams (1998) found that new homophones not shown in the study list were more likely to be judged "old" than new words in a recognition test, suggesting that fluency can lead to false alarms.
36
True/False Is the aha effect a sudden appearance of a solution through insight?
TRUE
37
What triggers not only affective preferences but a broad range of other judgments, including ratings of loudness, clarity, or familiarity of a stimulus?
Fluency
38
True or False: The Eureka heuristic can lead to the entrenchment of false beliefs and delusions.
TRUE
39
Define Term: Insight
Insight is a sudden realization of a problem's solution, which seems obvious and straightforward once it occurs.
40
True or false: According to one of the main characteristics of the “Aha” Experience, Ease explains that regardless of the difficulty of the problem-related processing, after the solution has been found, the process becomes fast and easy.
TRUE
41
How does the ease of retrieving an answer affect confidence in general memory content?
When an answer to a general-knowledge question is easily retrieved, people are more confident in their general memory content, independently of their actual knowledge.
42
True or false? The insight experience is an emotional reaction regarding the relevance of one's goals.
TRUE
43
True or False: Recent research suggests that feelings of insight always accompany correct ideas.
FALSE
44
What consequences that might happen to someone who committed insight fallacy?
Subjects are more likely to believe their false insights as true. In this case, it may be difficult to change their mind as they are more likely to stick with it, and would therefore be less likely to accept any alternative solution.
45
True or false: People feel positive and confident about a solution when it appears suddenly because their brain processes the solution easily and quickly.
True. This is known as processing fluency, which is the ease with which information is processed in the cognitive system.
46
How are insights and heuristics related?
Aha! moments are "the subjective marker of insight" (Laukonnen & al., 2020). In a similar vein to heuristics, these can be viewed as a (phenomenological) way of quickly assessing how "true" or "valuable" a novel idea/solution is in comparison to prior knowledge, giving it subsequent preponderant importance in one's decision making process.
47
What are the four characteristics of insight mentioned in the article by Sascha Topolinski1 and Rolf Reber?
Suddenness Ease Positive affect Truth and confidence
48
How does the "Aha" experience affect problem-solving and creativity?
The "Aha" experience can have a significant impact on problem-solving and creativity by providing sudden and powerful insights that can help to break through mental blocks and overcome obstacles. It can also enhance our ability to see patterns and connections, and can lead to new and innovative solutions to problems.
49
The word Eureka & heuristic come from the same origin in Ancient Greece. Why is this?
Humans use the feeling of Eureka as a heuristic signal to help select from a multitude of thoughts and ideas appearing in awareness. Insight (or a “eureka moment”) incorporates our past experiences and knowledge and uses shortcuts to help us solve problems.
50
True or False: The dalmatian dog figure provided in the reading utilised Bayesian model selection
False: It utilised Bayesian model reduction not Bayesian model selection because it made the image simpler and less complex
51
How are Eureka or 'Aha!' moments artificially induce?
Authors used anagram tasks which involve rearranging letters to form a new word or phrase
52
Will the Eureka Heuristic Model always be reliable?
No, false factoids can be strung together to encourage false Eureka experiences, potentially spreading misinformation.
53
feelings as information theory involves ___
subjective experiences in the form of emotions, bodily sensations and metacognitive experiences. They are sources of information that humans regularly rely on to make judgements and decisions.
54
fill in the blank: our crucial prediction is that aha experiences entailing mild pleasure and confidence can be induced experimentally, thus creating _____.
illusions of insight
55
One type of AI?
super AI
56
What is the "four-point" insight model?
The four-point insight model is a theoretical framework for understanding the "Aha" experience, which includes the problem space, the solution space, the restructuring process, and the moment of insight.
57
In Topolinski1 and Rebe's paper, what is meant by suddenness?
The experience is surprising and immediate.
58
What do we call the insight that permitting us to quickly decide whether we should truest a new idea given prior learning?
Eureka Heuristic
59
Which of the following best describes the relationship between insight and metacognition? A) Insight and metacognition are unrelated processes. B) Insight can be used to enhance metacognitive abilities. C) Metacognition is a prerequisite for insight. D) Insight and metacognition are two different terms for the same process.
The correct answer is B) Insight can be used to enhance metacognitive abilities.
60
in Bayesian Model Reduction, the aim is to maximize data inputs to render more accurate prediction models. True or False?
False. BMR works by reducing the complexity of explanation on current data by generating simpler (discrete) structures and models, thus no new data is used.
61
How does the ‘‘aha’’ experience differ from other types of insights?
The ‘‘aha’’ experience is characterized by a sudden, intuitive understanding of a problem or situation, often accompanied by a feeling of surprise or satisfaction. Other types of insights may be more gradual or involve a more deliberate cognitive process.
62
What is the insight fallacy
The erroneous belief that understanding the cause of a problem will solve the problem
63
Briefly explain what the Eureka Heuristic is.
When we have strong, positive feelings of insight towards an idea we generate, this feeling acts as a metacognitive heuristic which allows us to quickly decide whether we should trust this idea.
64
Katie has been trying to solve a complex mathematical problem for many hours and feels like she is making no progress. She decides to put it out of her mind by engaging in a different activity. She is tossing up between going for a walk or getting started on a big assignment. In which situation is she more likely to enhance insight problem solving for her maths problem?
If she chooses to go for a walk, Katie is more likely to enhance implicit processing afforded by periods of incubation as incubation is thought to best enhance insight problem solving if one is occupied by an undemanding task.
65
True or False: Artificially induced "Aha" moments can make facts feel true.
True.
66
In the video about Andrew Wiles, how many of the key characteristics of insight did he demonstrate in finding a solution to his problem.
4. Suddenness (finding the solution seemed like a moment of realisation), ease (after 7 years of labour, it was a simple shift in mind set), positive affect (he was given a great amount of satisfaction from the insight), and the feeling of being correct (he seemed quite sure he was correct, after years of not having a solution).
67
What fallacy was being attempted by mathematician and Nobel laureate John Nash after he concluded that the idea of of supernatural beings was true simply because it occurred to him with certain phenomenology that got him into his mathematical discoveries?
Insight fallacy
68
What is the Eureka Heuristic proposed in the paper?
The Eureka Heuristic is a metacognitive heuristic proposed in the paper that allows individuals to quickly determine whether they should trust a new idea based on prior learning.
69
What method was used to examine the neural activity involved in insight problem solving?
Electroencephalography (EEG)
70
What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in the 'Aha' experience? A) It is responsible for processing visual information B) It is responsible for processing auditory information C) It is responsible for problem-solving and decision-making D) It is responsible for controlling movement
Answer: C) It is responsible for problem-solving and decision-making
71
What is insight?
When a new idea feels particularly valuable, inspiring, and engenders a deep confidence within us.
72
True of false? If a solution of a problem comes to mind quickly and easily, then it must be true.
False – but the ease and speed with which it comes to mind does make people more likely to believe it is true
73
What is the role of suddenness in insights?
Insights come suddenly, as observed in empirical studies, and the moment of insight triggers an increase in positive affect and fluency.
74
Which section used rating and claim in article ? A,Design & materials B,Descriptives C,Discussion
B,Descriptives
75
What are the four main characteristics that describe the experience of insight mentioned in the Topolinsk & Reber (2010) paper?
Suddenness: The solution of the problem pops into mind abruptly and surprisingly Ease: However difficult the problem-related processing might have been before, it is processed fast and easily after a solution has been found. Positive affect: An insight yields a genuine positive affective experience that comes before the assessment of the solution. Truth and confidence. After an insight, problem solvers judge the solution as being true and express confidence in that judgment, even before systematically assessing the solution’s veracity in a formal analysis.
76
Describe the two major differences between insight and intuition.
Intuition tends to be more gradual and-non-specific, whereas insights are sudden and more specific; Intuitions are often associated with system 1 errors, whereas insights tend to predict accurate solutions
77
What type of problems are most likely to elicit the "aha" experience, based on the findings of Topolinski and Reber?
The study found that problems that involve a "hidden structure" or a "restructuring" of the problem space are most likely to elicit the "aha" experience.
78
What are some of the cognitive and neural mechanisms that are involved in moments of insight, according to the paper?
The paper suggests that various cognitive and neural mechanisms are involved in moments of insight, including attentional processes, working memory, and brain activity in the prefrontal cortex and other brain regions.
79
Fill in the Blank: The discrepancy between _________ before and after the appearance of the solution may be one component of the “aha” experience.
Processing fluency
80
According to the Topolinski, S., & Reber, R. (2010) paper, what are the four characteristics of the 'Aha!' experience?
Suddenness, Ease, Positive Affect, and Truth and Confidence.
81
In Laukkonen et al’s (2020) study on Aha moments, were the anagrams accompanied by insight (when compared with anagrams not accompanied by insight) a) more likely to be correctly solved, b) less likely to be correctly solved, c) correctly solved at the same rate as no insight or d) more likely to elicit uncomfortable feelings in the participants
a) anagrams accompanied by insight were more likely to be correctly solved, compared with anagrams not accompanied by insight
82
What task can be used to artificially induce an Aha! moment?
An anagram task.
83
What are the differences between intuition and insight?
Intuition tends to be more gradual and non-specific, and is associated with system 1 system errors. Meanwhile, insight is sudden, tends to involve specific reportable content, and can predict accurate solutions.
84
What are the four aspects of the a-ha experience?
Suddenness, Ease, Positive affect, and the feeling of being right.
85
What is the incubation period?
The incubation period is a period of time where the problem is set aside before the "Aha" moment occurs.
86
What is the "Feeling-as-Information" Theory?
It refers to when Humans use subjective experience as sources of information to make judgments and decisions. In regards to "Aha! Moments" that occur when solving problems, humans will often find these moments as a source of information when it carries information about the accuracy for a new solution. Therefore, "Aha!" Moments can lead humans to predict accurate solutions on the basis that it aligns with the accuracy for a new solution.
87
The “Aha” experience, also known as an insight, is characterised by four main features. Which of the following is not one of them? (a) Suddenness (b) Effortful and deliberate problem-solving (c) Positive affect (d) Ease
The correct answer is: (b) Effortful and deliberate problem-solving Explanation: The “aha” experience is characterised by suddenness, positive affect, and ease, which contrasts with effortful and deliberate problem-solving. The study suggests that insights are more likely to occur when people are engaged in tasks that involve some level of problem-solving, but not so much that it becomes an effortful and deliberate process.
88
What is the main implication of the study (The Dark Side of Eureka study) for combatting misinformation?
Raising awareness of the dark side of "aha" moments could help combat misinformation
89
What percentage of the time people have an insight are they likely to be correct according to Salvi et al. (2016).
92%
90
What are the four main characteristics present in an "aha" moment?
1. Suddenness (the experience is surprising and immediate) 2. Ease (the solution is processed without difficulty) 3. Positive affect (insights are gratifying) 4. The feeling of being right (after an insight, problem solvers judge the solution as being true and have confidence in this judgment)
91
What are some practical applications of understanding the 'Aha' experience? A) Improving social skills and emotional intelligence B) Increasing physical performance and endurance C) Improving problem-solving skills and creativity D) Increasing memory retention and recall
Answer: C) Improving problem-solving skills and creativity
92
In the anagram experiment, the authors mention the possibility that even if the participants don't manage to solve the problem, a "miniature" Aha-moment still could occur when the solution is presented to them, and that this makes the results harder to interpret.
False. They made sure this factor didn't play a role by introducing the "delay" condition.
93
Where does dopamine play a role?
In the brain's reward system, the regulation of mood and the development depression and anxiety.
94
Revelation effect
The "revelation effect" is a phenomenon in psychology where people tend to believe they knew the answer to a question all along after they have been given the answer. This effect is also known as the "illusion of truth" or "truth effect."
95
Is it possible to bias people toward thinking a falsehood is true using an Aha! moment?
Yes. They give the individual a sense of truth and confidence in the answer and thus can be 'tricked' into believing a falsehood is true
96
What brain activity was measured during the study in The Dark Side of Eureka, and what did the results show?
The study measured EEG activity in participants' brains, and the results showed that artificially induced "aha moments" were associated with increased gamma-band activity, which is indicative of neural processing and attention.
97
What theory describes the reliance on subjective experiences such as emotions, bodily sensations, and metacognitive experiences that humans rely on when making judgments or decisions?
Feelings-as-Information Theory
98
How does the "Aha" experience relate to creativity, and what are some of the theoretical models explaining this relationship?
The "Aha" experience is closely related to creativity, as it often involves the sudden emergence of novel insights or solutions. According to the article, various theoretical models, such as the Remote Associates Test (RAT) and the Mednick's Associative Theory, attempt to explain the cognitive mechanisms underlying the "Aha" experience and its role in creative problem-solving.
99
(True/False)Insight phenomenology cannot be used as a metacognitive heuristic for evaluating new ideas
FALSE
100
Laukkonen et al. propose that selecting ideas during insight involves....
Both top-down and bottom-up processes
101
Fill in the blank: The surprise dimension of the insight experience is associated with __, whereas the pleasure and confidence dimensions are associated with _.
Prediction error, precision-weighting
102
What are the practical implications of the study's findings in The Dark Side of Eureka?
The study's findings have implications for how people process and remember information. Specifically, they suggest that people may be more susceptible to believing false information as true if it is presented in a way that induces an "aha moment." This has implications for fields such as education and advertising, where false information may be inadvertently reinforced through misleading hints or word associations.
103
Fill in the blank: Insight or Aha! moments are also known as the _______ Heuristic.
Eureka
104
When participants reported an 'aha' moment in Salvi et al. (2016) study, how many times more likely were they to be correct, as compared to when they didn't report an 'aha' moment? A) As likely B) Twice C) Three D) Four
B) Twice
105
What are the implications of the study on the ‘‘dark side of Eureka’’?
The study has important implications for the use of problem-solving techniques that artificially induce the Eureka effect, as they may lead people to believe that false information is true. It also highlights the need for critical thinking and careful evaluation of information, even when it is presented in a convincing or intuitive way.
106
Fill in the blank: I felt fear walking past a dark sketchy alleyway alone in the dark of the night, therefore I avoided the alley as it must be dangerous. This is an example of F______-__-I__________ theory.
Feeling-as-Information Theory
107
The __________ refers to the experience of suddenly realizing a solution to a problem or gaining a new perspective on a situation.
Insight
108
True or False: Participants did provide higher truth ratings when solving an anagram elicit Aha! moments.
True. This indicated that participants were being influenced by their feelings of insight.
109
The study by Laukkonen et al. focuses on the cognitive and neural mechanisms involved in...
Selecting ideas during insight
110
How did the researchers manipulate the participants' experiences in The Dark Side of Eureka to induce false "aha moments"?
The researchers used a combination of misleading hints and word associations to induce false "aha moments" in participants. For example, they presented participants with three unrelated words (e.g. soccer, field, and sixteen) and then provided a misleading hint (e.g. "the answer is not related to sports") to induce a false insight.
111
What is the role of human experience, bodily sensations, and emotions in decision-making?
The human experience, bodily sensations, and emotions guide our decisions and help us navigate complexity and uncertainty.
112
What is the computational framework of Bayesian model reduction, and how is it related to insight?
The computational framework of Bayesian model reduction is a statistical model that can optimize predictions based on probability and uncertainty.
113
Define Heuristics
A cognitive process formed on the basis of making decisions quickly and efficiently by relying on past experiences, rule of thumbs and mental shortcuts that allows people to make decisions quickly.
114
True or False: According to Topolinski and Reber (2010), the "Aha" experience is typically accompanied by increased activity in the prefrontal cortex.
Answer: False. Explanation: Topolinski and Reber (2010) reviewed research on the "Aha" experience, which refers to the moment of sudden insight or understanding. They noted that while previous research suggested increased activity in the prefrontal cortex during the "Aha" experience, more recent studies have called this into question. Some studies have actually found decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex during insight moments. Thus, the "Aha" experience does not seem to be consistently associated with increased prefrontal cortex activity.
115
Why is it that people are more confident answering general questions when the answer is easily retrieved from their memory?
This is due to their abilities in fluent processing, independent of their actual knowledge.
116
What is the cognitive process involved in the "Aha" moment?
The "Aha" moment involves a restructuring of mental representations or schemas, and the resolution of cognitive impasses.
117
The authors suggest that understanding the "aha" experience could have important implications for....
Enhancing problem-solving and creative thinking
118
What does the concept of Fluency refer to in the context of Metacognition?
Performing a task or understanding a concept efficiently and with minimal effort
119
What is the difference between convergent and divergent thinking?
Convergent thinking is a cognitive process that involves narrowing down a range of possible solutions to a specific problem to identify the best one. Divergent thinking, on the other hand, is a cognitive process that involves generating a range of possible solutions to a specific problem.
120
What is the gestalt theory of insight and how does it explain the "aha" experience?
The gestalt theory of insight posits that the "aha" experience arises from the sudden restructuring of one's understanding of a problem, rather than the recognition of a familiar pattern or solution. This theory suggests that insight involves a shift in perception or mental representation, leading to a sudden understanding of a problem's solution.
121
The idea that we can effectively navigate the world through our own feelings and phenomenological experiences is encapsulated by what theory?
Feelings-as-information theory.
122
True or false: Low processing fluency appears to be hedonically marked since stimuli that are difficult to process, compared to stimuli that are easily/rapidly processed, require more time and effort to understand, thus making one feel more rewarded and a more positive affect after it is understood.
False. High processing fluency per se appears to be hedonically marked, because stimuli that are processed easily and rapidly are preferred to stimuli that are difficult to process.
123
True/False Does an insight accompanied by positive affect come after the assessment of the solution?
FALSE
124
What are the 4 main characteristics of the "Aha" experience?
suddenness, ease, positive affect, feeling of being right.
125
How does false information affect 'Aha' moments?
False information can cause insight to lack any predictive power, it can also potentially promote and perpetuate dangerous ideas.
126
According to Topolinski and Reber (2010), what is the feature connecting the several experiences of insight?
The processing fluency
127
Which of the following is NOT a defining characteristic of insight? 1. confidence in truth, 2. Pride, 3. Ease 4. Positive Affect
2. Pride
128
How does fluency affect positive affect and judged truth?
Fluency triggers positive affect and judged truth, increasing ratings of truth and confidence.
129
True or False: Convergent thinking is a type of thinking that involves narrowing down many different ideas or solutions to a problem to arrive at a single solution. It is often used in creative problem-solving and idea generation.
False: Convergent thinking is often used in decision-making.
130
According to the study, which of the following is a potential implication of artificially inducing "aha" moments? (a) Enhancing critical thinking and analytical skills (b) Improving memory retention for factual information (c) Making people more susceptible to believing false information (d) Reducing cognitive biases and errors in judgment
The correct answer is: (c) Making people more susceptible to believing false information The study found that artificially inducing "aha" moments, even when the facts presented were false, increased people's confidence in their knowledge and made them more susceptible to believing false information. This suggests that inducing "aha" moments may have negative consequences by overriding people's rational thinking and making them more prone to cognitive biases and errors in judgment.
131
True/False Problem solvers express confidence in the solution's veracity before systematically assessing it in a formal analysis.
TRUE
132
What is cognitive fluency?
Fluency refers to the ease and speed with which information is processed, independent of its content. It is a trainable skill that can be affected by repeated stimuli or by changing stimulus attributes.
133
What do Topolinski and Reber claim are the 4 main characteristics of insight (according to the relevant literature) in their 2010 publishing on the 'Aha Experience'?
Suddenness, ease, positive affect, and the feeling of being correct.
134
What was the main finding of Laukkonen et al.'s (2020) study on artificially induced Aha moments? A) Participants who experienced artificially induced Aha moments were more likely to remember the correct information. B) Participants who experienced artificially induced Aha moments were less likely to remember the correct information. C) Participants who experienced artificially induced Aha moments were more likely to believe false information. D) Participants who experienced artificially induced Aha moments were less likely to believe false information.
Answer: C
135
What is the "Aha" experience? a. A feeling of confusion and disorientation b. A sudden realization or understanding c. A state of intense emotional arousal d. A form of meditation practice
B) a sudden realisation or understanding
136
What is the main finding of the article "The dark side of Eureka: Artificially induced Aha moments make facts feel true" by Laukkonen et al. (2020) published in the journal Cognition?
The article found that artificially inducing "Aha" moments can make people more likely to believe that related factual statements are true, even if they are actually false, revealing a potential "dark side" to the experience of sudden insight.
137
Fill in the blank: A study by Laukkonen, Kaveladze, Tangen & Schooler found that participants provided ___ (higher/lower) truth ratings for propositions provided to them, irrespective of the actual truthfulness of the proposition. This effect was ___ (amplified/diminished) when an ‘Aha!’ experience was also reported by participants.
Higher; amplified.
138
One risk of AI?
potential for biased decision-making
139
Define Metacognition
Metacognition is thinking about one’s thinking, it is the processes one uses to plan, monitor and assess one’s understanding and performance. (easier explanation: the intentional thinking about how one thinks and learns).
140
What type of paradigm was used to test the prediction that artificially induced Aha! phenomenology would bias judgments?
The discovery misattribution paradigm.
141
When measuring the variable of suddenness, "feelings of warmth" were measures when solving insight problems, what did Topolinski and Reber (2010) report?`
Feelings of warmth remained stable and low until eventual insight when they rapidly increased suggesting that insight cannot be anticipated.
142
One benefit of AI?
improved decision-making
143
According to the study, artificially induced "aha" moments can: (a) Lead people to doubt their knowledge (b) Make people feel more confident in their knowledge (c) Have no effect on people’s confidence in their knowledge (d) Increase people’s ability to remember facts
The correct answer is: (b) Make people feel more confident in their knowledge Explanation: The study found that artificially inducing "aha" moments, even when the facts presented were false, increased people's confidence in their knowledge. This suggests that the experience of having an "aha" moment can override people's rational thinking and make them more susceptible to believing false information.
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What is Bayesian model reduction?
Bayesian model reduction is the process of finding the simplest explanation of the information that we have, such that the explanation can generalise all the information the best. This is done by using the knowledge and information we have and testing it out on itself over and over until we get the simplest reasoning behind it.
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What is processing fluency and how is it related to insight?
Processing fluency is defined as the ease with which information is processed in the cognitive system pertaining to factors such as perceptual input, semantic representations, or the retrieval or memory contents. Insight is an experience where a solution to a problem is revealed/comes to mind, which increases processing fluency, and in turn provides positive affect and confidence in the solution.
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Why did John Nash believe that he was being recruited by aliens?
“…the ideas I had about supernatural beings came to me the same way that my mathematical ideas did. So I took them seriously” John Nash relied on his 'Aha!' moments to guide his beliefs.
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True or false: feelings of insight always accompany accurate information.
False - not always. The reading, "The dark side of Eureka: Artificially induced Aha moments make facts feel true" also highlights the danger of overgeneralising insightful moments or creating bias that affects one judgement because of them.
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According to Topolinski and Reber 2010, what is processing fluency?
A feeling state that helps integrate the experiential components of insight
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True or False. Processing fluency depends on content-independent dynamics of information processing, namely the ease and speed with which the processing succeeds independent of content.
TRUE
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True/False. Processing fluency refers to the ability of cognitive system processes information with ease and is believed to be responsible for the positive effect and confidence of an insight.
TRUE
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Before the assessment of a solution, insight yields _______ within the person. After the insight, before assessing the accuracy of the solution, the problem solver expresses ________.
(1) Positive affect; (2) Truth & confidence.
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True or False: In the case of someone who may have committed to an insight fallacy, it will be difficult to change their minds once they have the belief and to prevent them from behaving as if the solution were true.
TRUE
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True or False: The "Aha" experience is always accompanied by negative emotions, such as frustration and dissatisfaction.
False: This experience is usually accompanied by positive emotions, such as pleasure, satisfaction, and joy.
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True or False: According to Laukkonen et al. , insight problem-solving involves selective attention and inhibition processes.
Answer: True. Explanation: Laukkonen et al. suggest that insight problem-solving involves selective attention and inhibition processes that help individuals break away from unproductive problem-solving strategies and focus on the information needed to solve the problem. This allows them to restructure their mental representation of the problem and eventually arrive at a solution.
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In Topolinski1 and Rebe's paper, what is meant by ease?
The solution is processed without difficulty.
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What are the Four Main Characteristics of the "Aha" Experience?
Suddenness, Ease, Positive Affect & Feeling of being right.
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True or false: Topolinski and Reber (2010) do not see any potential for insight experiences to be experimentally induced in future research.
False: „ Our crucial prediction is that aha experiences entailing mild pleasure and confidence can be induced experimentally.“
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Why are high contrast judgment statements more likely to be considered true as compared to low contrast statements?
Individuals can comprehend the high contrast statements faster which increases our assessments of confidence and truth.
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Feelings-as-Information theory
Subjective experiences in the forms of emotions, bodily sensations, and metacognitive experiences are sources of information that humans regularly rely on to make judgments and decisions
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Eureka Heuristic
A problem-solving strategy that involves sudden insight or intuition that leads to a solution
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Key characteristics of the aha effect as noted by Topolinski and Reber
suddenness, ease, positive affect, truth and confidence.
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Topolinski and Reber (2010) found that a more sudden presented solution was more likely to be endorsed, this related back to insight how?
It fits with the observations that the suddenness of insight leads to a greater belief in the truth of the insight.
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What role does incubation play in the "Aha" experience?
Incubation involves temporarily setting aside a problem and engaging in an unrelated activity. The authors suggest that incubation allows the mind to unconsciously work on the problem, making new associations and connections that can lead to "Aha" moments.
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According to the findings of Laukkonen et al., an "aha" moment helps prevent people from believing further untrue information. (T/F)
False. The study found that inducing an "aha" moment led to people being more likely to believe subsequent untrue information, independent of how plausible that information may actually be.
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What is an insight and how is it related to the accuracy of a solution according to recent empirical work?
An insight is a sudden and subjective experience of knowing the correctness or value of an idea that unexpectedly comes to mind. Recent empirical work suggests that when participants report an Aha! experience, the solution they provide tends to be correct, with the insight-accuracy effect being consistent across a variety of laboratory problems and effect sizes being large.
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What is an example of a false statement used in the experiments in the Dark Side of Eureka study?
That glass is a type of rock
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What is the main finding of the Laukkonen et al. (2020) study?
The main finding of the study is that artificially induced Aha moments can make facts feel more true, even when the facts are false or unrelated to the problem being solved.
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In what ways can the "Aha" experience contribute to problem-solving, according to the Topolinski and Reber (2010) article?
The "Aha" experience can be beneficial in problem-solving because it often leads to sudden and novel insights that enable individuals to see problems in new ways and generate creative solutions. The article suggests that "Aha" moments can help break down mental fixation and allow individuals to approach problems with greater flexibility and openness, leading to better problem-solving outcomes.
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The usual adaptive functioning of feelings of insight is dependent on what two things?
Valid knowledge and a healthy state of mind
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Feelings as information theory
Making judgments and decisions based on subjective experiences in the forms of emotions, bodily sensations, and using metacognitive experiences are sources of information. Internal states such as hunger, tiredness, fear and pleasure will influence decisionmaking.
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How does motivation influence the occurrence of insight, according to the research discussed in the paper?
According to the research discussed in the paper, motivation can influence the occurrence of insight by increasing the individual's level of persistence and cognitive flexibility, which can in turn enhance their ability to overcome obstacles and arrive at novel solutions.
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According to Topolinski and Reber 2010, what are the 4 main characterisitics of insight as concluded by mathematician Henri Poincare?
suddenness, ease, positive affect and truth/confidence
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True / False Topolinski and Reber's study on suddenness found that solutions presented with a delay of 50 ms were more likely to be endorsed than solutions shown after 150 ms, regardless of whether or not the solutions to the anagrams were actually correct.
True - Hansen, Dechene, and Wanke (2008) found that surprising fluency, or a sudden increase in fluency, increased judgments of truth, but this effect was only observed when the level of fluency was surprisingly high.
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True or False: The "aha" experience can be artificially induced to make people believe false statements to be true.
True This question is based on the findings from the study "The dark side of Eureka" by Laukkonen et al. (2020), which showed that artificially inducing an "aha" moment can lead people to believe false statements to be true. This is an important finding as it highlights the potential for cognitive biases to influence our beliefs and decisions.
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What is the “Feelings-as-Information” Theory?
Humans regularly rely on subjective experiences in the form of bodily sensations, emotions, and metacognitive experiences to make judgements and decisions.
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What hemisphere of the brain is involved in the "Aha" moment?
Research suggests that the "Aha" moment is related to the activation of the right hemisphere of the brain.
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What is the 'Aha' experience? A) A sudden realization or insight when solving a problem B) A feeling of confusion or uncertainty when faced with a challenge C) A state of flow when fully immersed in a task D) A state of mindfulness when meditating
Answer: A) A sudden realization or insight when solving a problem
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Which of the following is NOT one of the 4 main characteristics of the "Aha! Experience"? A) Suddenness (the experience is surprising and immediate) B) Ease (the solution is processed without difficulty) C) Positive affect (insights are gratifying) D) Correctness (certainty that the solution is right)
Option D is not one of the characteristics of an "Aha! moment". The fourth main characteristic is the FEELING of being right - but it may not necessarily be right. I.e. After an insight, problem solvers judge the solution as being true (regardless of whether it is or not) and have confidence in this judgement.
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What is an advantage of using the Aha-moment with decision-making?
It is feasible for problem-solvers to use this method when making decisions as a heuristic a shortcut so long as the person’s existing knowledge is sound, it will likely result in a correct solution.
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What is the Insight Fallacy?
It is when one have a sudden insight and thinks that it is enough to solve a complex problem or understand a complex concept.
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What are the cognitive processes involved in the "Aha" moment or sudden insight, as discussed in the article "Gaining insight into the 'Aha' experience" by Topolinski and Reber?
The article suggests that the "Aha" moment is the result of the brain resolving a cognitive conflict or contradiction and that insight can be facilitated by presenting a problem in an unconventional or novel way, while encouraging relaxation and not focusing too hard on finding a solution.
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In the experiment conducted by Laukkonen & Collegues 2020, how did researchers try to prompt "Aha Moments" for their particpants?
reseachers presented participants with a simliar word to the missing word of a sentence they were tasked to finish eg “nomo” (moon)
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What is the Eureka Heuristic model?
The model suggests that insights are selected based on a feeling of intuition, which can be influenced by implicit processing, incubation periods, and subliminal priming.
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TRUE or FALSE: Processing fluency depends on content-dependent dynamics of information processing.
FALSE: Processing fluency depends on content-independent dynamics of information processing. Namely, the ease and speed with which the processing succeeds independent of content.
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Is confidence likely to increase if one has a insightful moment
Yes
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True of False: Laukkonen, Kaveladze, Tangen, and Schooler suggest that the insite experience is not a part of the heiristics that people use to make quick decions in the face of uncertainty.
False. They suggest that the insite experience is well placed amongst heiristics that help quick decisions in the face of uncertainty.
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What is the Eureka Heuristic and how is it related to Aha! moments in problem-solving?
The Eureka Heuristic is a theory that proposes that Aha! moments serve as a quick appraisal of whether a new idea is consistent with an individual's existing knowledge, rather than engaging in a slow and effortful evaluation. This heuristic allows the problem solver to evaluate the veracity of a new idea quickly and efficiently, as long as the person's existing knowledge is valid. Aha! moments are thought to carry information about the veracity of a new idea and can be used as a heuristic shortcut in problem-solving.
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TRUE OR FALSE: Bayesian model reduction explains the feeling and function of insight.
FALSE
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What are the cognitive and neurocomputational mechanisms involved in selecting ideas during the process of insight, as discussed in the preprint article "On selecting ideas: Cognitive and neurocomputational mechanisms of insight" by Laukkonen et al.?
The preprint article explores the cognitive and neurocomputational mechanisms involved in selecting ideas during the process of insight.
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What is the effect of incubation periods on eureka moments/occurrences?
Periods of incubation, which involve putting a problem aside and working on another task, can facilitate eureka moments. Studies show that an incubation period enhances insight problem-solving.
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In the article 'On selecting ideas: Cognitive and neurocomputational mechanisms of insight.' What are the stated one common theme of insights?
The common theme is that insights must draw on past experiences or memory to be able to provide valuable information.
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What did Topolinski and Reber find about the relationship between the "aha" moment and unconscious processing?
The study found that the "aha" moment is often preceded by a phase of unconscious processing, during which the brain works on the problem in the background before the insight suddenly appears.
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What specific aspects of insight are examined in the research by Laukkonen et al.?
The research examines the cognitive processes involved in the generation, evaluation, and selection of ideas during insight problem-solving, as well as the neurocomputational mechanisms that support these processes.
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True or false: 92% of the time, if a person has a insight it will be correct.
True, this was shown in Salvi et al. (2016) study.
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What are the advantages and disadvantages of using neuroimaging techniques to study insight problem-solving?
The advantages of using neuroimaging techniques to study insight problem-solving include the ability to identify the neural networks involved in problem-solving and to monitor brain activity in real-time. The disadvantages include the high cost and technical expertise required to conduct these studies, as well as the potential for confounding factors (such as participant motion) to affect the results.
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What sorts of activities should be undertaken during periods of incubation to result in an eventual insight?
Undemanding tasks
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What is the dark side of "Aha" moments, according to the article 'The dark side of Eureka: Artificially induced Aha moments make facts feel true' by Ruben E. Laukkonen, Benjamin T. Kaveladze, Jason M. Tangen, and Jonathan W. Schooler?
The dark side of "Aha" moments is that they can lead people to believe false information as true, even when presented with evidence to the contrary.
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What does the Eureka heuristic refer to?
refers to a sudden moment of insight or discovery that allows an individual to solve a problem or understand a concept in a new way.
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What type of neuromodulator is reported to play a significant role in the precision-weighting and overall experience of an insight?
Dopamine
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Explain Eureka Heuristic.
The Eureka Heuristic involves considering a new idea against pre-existing knowledge and beliefs then deciding to accept or reject it based on this information.
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Why are problems that are easily completed more pleasurable?
Humans prefer problems which are easy as compared to hard problems as they require less effort.
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True or False? Insights tends to be more gradual and non-specific, whereas intuition is sudden and tends to involve specific reportable content.
False (other way around)
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In "The dark side of Eureka: Artificially induced Aha moments make facts feel true" study did the researchers' findings match their initial prediction?
Yes! They found that successfully solving an anagram at the same time as reading a general knowledge claim resulted in higher truth ratings, even if the facts were false.
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Fill in the blanks: A Eureka moment is a sudden moment of __________ or __________ that leads to a solution that was previously not apparent.
realization, discovery
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What are the two main characteristics of the experience of insight described by Poincare ́?
Suddenness and the feeling of Ease.
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According to Topolinski and Reber, what are firstly the main characteristics of the experience of insight as well as further experiences that closely accompany insight?
The main characteristics are suddenness and ease relating to processing fluency, whilst further experiences include positive affect and increased truth and confidence in the stimuli.
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Which was the purpose of the between-subjects variable in Laukkonen et al’s (2020) study? a) to compare the truth judgments for solved and unsolved anagrams b) to investigate base line truth judgments without the presence of an anagram, or c) to see who had the most ‘Aha’ moments?
B – they included a between-subjects variable so that we could investigate baseline truth judgments without the presence of an anagram.
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What is the dark side of insight, as explored by Laukkonen et al. (2020)? A) The potential for artificially induced Aha moments to make facts feel true. B) The negative impact of insight on problem-solving performance. C) The cognitive biases that can result from the experience of insight. D) The potential for insight to lead to overconfidence in one's abilities.
The correct answer is A) The potential for artificially induced Aha moments to make facts feel true. Laukkonen et al.'s (2020) study explored the impact of artificially induced Aha moments on the feeling of truth associated with facts. The study found that participants who experienced artificially induced Aha moments were more likely to believe false information presented to them after the experience of insight. This suggests that the feeling of insight can lead to overconfidence in the accuracy of information, even if it is incorrect. This phenomenon can have significant implications for real-life decision-making and problem-solving, as it can lead to the perpetuation of misinformation and false beliefs. Therefore, the potential for artificially induced Aha moments to make facts feel true is the dark side of insight that is explored in Laukkonen et al.'s (2020) study.
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True or False? The Feeling-as-Information theory suggests that people often use their emotional states as a source of information when making judgments and decisions.
True.
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Experiences entailing mild pleasure and confidence can be induced experimentally thus creating _______
illusions of insight
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What does the feelings-as-information theory say about insight at a cognitive level?
Suggests that the experiential information of insight helps us to reason appropriately and make decisions. An example of feelings-as-information is also hunger which gives information about our nutritional requirements and makes us seek out food.
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In the article written by Topolinski and Reber, the four main features and experiences of insight being mentioned are: a. suddenness, availability, affect, confidence; b. suddenness, ease, positive affect, sensibility; c. suddenness, ease, negative affect, truth and confidence; d. suddenness, ease, positive affect, truth and confidence
d. suddenness, ease, positive affect, truth and confidence
213
True or False: Implicit restructuring via Bayesian reduction leads to a lower-order prediction error.
False. Implicit restructuring via Bayesian reduction leads to a higher-order prediction error, which is the content of insight.
214
Define 'insight'.
Insight refers to a sudden realization of a solution to a problem or a sudden understanding of a concept or idea.
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What is the main conclusion of the Dark Side of Eureka study?
Artifically induced "aha" moments can make false statements feel true
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What are some of the potential implications of insight research for education and problem-solving, as discussed in the paper?
The paper proposes that insight research has important implications for education and problem-solving, as it can help to identify strategies and interventions that can enhance individuals' ability to arrive at creative solutions and overcome obstacles. Additionally, the paper suggests that insight research may have implications for the treatment of various neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as depression and schizophrenia, which are associated with deficits in insight and problem-solving ability.
217
True or False: Fluency can be manipulated by such procedures such as exposing individuals to the same stimulus repeatedly or by changing stimulus attributes like figure-ground contrast or symmetry.
TRUE
218
What is the accuracy of insights and how has it been studied in the Cognitive and neurocomputational mechanisms of insight paper?
Insights are characterized by higher accuracy, and 92% of the time people have an insight they are likely to be correct. This finding has been well-replicated across many studies and problem types, including compound remote associates, rebus puzzles, anagrams, and visually degraded images. The accuracy of insights has been tested using a range of approaches, including a dynamometer, which has shown that the feeling and intensity of insight may have informational value in predicting the accuracy of solutions.
219
True of False. Aha experiences can create illusions of insight.
TRUE
220
What are the 4 factors previous literature associates with insight according to Topolinski1 and Rebe
the suddenness, ease, positive affect, and the feeling of being right
221
Name the two features of the experience of insight according to Pincaré.
Suddenness and Ease.
222
What brain region is associated with the "Aha" experience?
The right hemisphere of the brain, particularly the prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex, are associated with the "Aha" experience.
223
What are the four main elements of insight (or Aha moments)?
Suddenness Ease Positive affect Truth and confidence
224
What are one of the concerns Laukkonena et al. (2019) highlight in their study "The dark side of Eureka: Artificially induced Aha moments make facts feel true" with regards to their findings around feelings of insight and Aha! moments?
Their experiment highlights a concern of overgeneralizing feelings of insight, and how this may be manipulated and exploited as a tool of persuasion by the media.
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The rush of insight
The "rush of insight" is a term used to describe the sudden and profound understanding of a problem or situation that can occur in a moment of clarity. It's often described as a feeling of euphoria or excitement that comes when a solution or answer to a problem suddenly becomes clear.
226
How could confirmation bias and the eureka heuristic work together negatively?
Individuals could look for information that is consistent with prior insight helping form a belief based on the insight. Their insight could be false, resulting in incorrect conclusions, due to confirmation bias the individual does not question their insight.
227
True / False Does fluency increase judgments of truth and confidence in one’s own performance?
TRUE
228
For some experts, which two features constitutes the key moments of insight and are enough to form the definitional core of it?
Suddenness and ease
229
Can insights always be true?
No. Insight fallacy can occur when a person believes something is true, although it is not, purely because it occured in a moment of insight.
230
The Revelation Effect is a phenomenon when a statement which is delayed is believed to be more likely to be true, even if this statement was once thought to be false. This is particularly evident when statements are delayed for a shorter/longer amount of time.
Longer amount of time. As the Revelation Effect is about an unconscious bias leading people to accept statements rather than a conscious decision.
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Define Processing Fluency
Ease of which information is processed by the cognitive system.
