Class 12: Distinguishing between fact and fiction Flashcards
True or False: The article suggests that cognitive biases, such as confirmation bias and the availability heuristic, can contribute to the spread of fake news.
TRUE
What is the “disfluency-emotion link” proposed by the authors? (Schwarz & Newman)
The disfluency-emotion link refers to the idea that when people encounter difficulty in processing information, they may experience negative emotions such as frustration or anxiety.
According to Kahan, what might explain the difference in partisan beliefs that occurs in relation to the acceptance or rejection of climate change and evolution?
The influence of the sense of belonging, that rejects information sources conflicting with beliefs central to that identity. Individuals with greater cognitive capacities may also have a greater capacity to explain away inconvenient data.
What are the five criteria people often rely on when deciding if something is true?
Social consensus, compatibility, coherence, credibility, and support.
Define the ‘Confirmation Bias’.
‘Confirmation Bias’ - The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.
True or False? According to Stephan Lewandowsky, it is easier to change people’s behaviour than it is to change their attitudes.
True.
How does correcting misinformation with facts backfire in some occasions?
False information can seem more intuitively true so when a person thinks back to remember what the truthful statement was, they are more likely to remember the easier to process one, often the false statement.
Briefly define the meaning of ‘partisan heuristic’
Rules of thumb sensitive to cues of party affiliation or of identities and activities valued by or associated with their side of politics
Outline the difference between analytical and intuitive evaluation.
Analytic answers draw on relevant knowledge and may involve extensive information search, which is taxing and requires cognitive resources. Intuitive answers are less demanding and rely on feelings of fluency and familiarity.
What are some possible strategies for preventing or reducing belief in fake news?
- Explicit corrections of misinformation which do not simply inform the consumer that some information is incorrect, but also provide new information that plays the same role as the old. 2. Encouraging people to critically think and deliberate on the fake news 3. Bringing an accuracy motive to the forefront of audiences’ minds 4. Equipping people with skills to identify fake news 5. ‘Inoculation’: exposing people to a weakened version of the argument first
What are the three effects that can result as a negative consequence for using Corrections & Warnings to reduce Fake news?
- Backfire Effect - People become more committed to a claim following presentations of strong evidence against it. 2. Implied Truth Effect - Fake news headlines that fail to get tagged as (inaccurate) are considered validated & more accurate. 3. Tainted Truth effect - Informative news wrongly labelled as inaccurate leads to decreased credibility and can be exploited.
What is the deficit model in the context of belief in fake news?
The deficit model suggests that people believe in fake news due to cognitive limitations or ignorance. It implies that individuals with less cognitive capacity or knowledge are more likely to accept implausible or irrational information.
Why - according to Schwarz and Newman (2017)- are older adults more likely to experience a backfire effects of false information?
Because they are less likely to remember details better (which are necessary to remember the truth) and thus rely more on the feeling of familiarity.
What is Fake News?
A set of reports of public interest events that mimic reliable new sources, but intend to deceive or are indifferent to truth.
What is the relationship between gut feelings and intuition?
Gut feelings are automatic responses to sensory information, intuition involves conscious reflection and cognitive processing
What is Epistemology?
The study and theory of knowledge. It asks do we know things? And how do we know things?
Fill in the Blank: ______________ and ______________ are two factors discussed in the article that can influence gut feelings and judgments.
Emotional arousal and cognitive fluency are two factors discussed in the article that can influence gut feelings and judgments.
T or F: In the paper by Schwarz and Newman, it is suggested that gut feelings can sometimes be accurate indicators of truth.
TRUE
True or False? Incentivization and polling may have the effect of producing the very beliefs that are reported
True (i.e. the absence of a prior belief or not having confidence in the truth of the proposition they assert)
What are some interventions for combating fake news?
Media literacy, fact-checking, and promoting critical thinking
What is inoculation and how can it be used to prevent people from accepting fake news?
Inoculation is a technique that involves preemptively exposing people to weakened forms of arguments for fake news in order to build up resistance to them, and it has been shown to be effective in reducing people’s susceptibility to misinformation
Of these, which one is NOT true based on the reading: 1. information is more likely to be accepted when it comes from a credible source 2. a claim is less likely to be accepted when it has a large body of supporting evidence
- is NOT true. A claim is MORE likely to be accepted when it has a large body of supporting evidence
According to Levy & Ross 2021, what do they identify as a possible limitation to their discussion?
Their discussion is heavily skewed to the US context, because most of the available research concerns the United States
What are two ways people assess the compatibility of a claim?
Compatibility can be assessed analytically by checking the claim against other knowledge or intuitively by attending to one’s subjective experiences during exposure to the claim
What are the potential solutions to combat the spread of fake news?
Education, media literacy, the development of more sophisticated fact-checking tools, and increasing critical thinking skills.
“The world is the way I see it and whoever disagrees is either ill-informed or ill-intentioned.” What phenomena is this describing according to Ross & Ward (1996)?
Naive realism.
Do people believe fake news?
A surprisingly high number of people express agreement with some of the more widely disseminated fake news items. While assertion is usually a reliable guide to belief, it is not infallible. There is evidence of a belief/behavior mismatch on politically charged topics, which calls into question the sincerity of people’s belief reports. However, some studies have found evidence that people do tend to behave in ways that conform to their professed beliefs.
What is expressive responding?
Where people may seek to express their allegiance to a party, a policy or a person, rather than report their sincere beliefs
What term is used to explain acceptance of fake news (or rejection of genuine news)?
Identity protective cognition.
State one consequence of corrections and warnings
Backfire Effect - the possibility that people become more committed to a false claim after strong evidence against it has been presented
What is the “gut feeling” phenomenon?
The “gut feeling” phenomenon refers to the intuitive sense of certainty or uncertainty that people experience when making judgments or decisions.
What is one of the challenges that researchers face when trying to correct misinformation or false beliefs?
One challenge is the backfire effect, which occurs when people become more entrenched in their false beliefs when confronted with contradictory evidence.
True or False: People only rely on their feelings when evaluating the truth of statements that are easy to understand.
Answer: False Explanation: According to Schwarz and Newman (2017), people rely on their feelings to evaluate the truth of statements in various situations. This is not limited to only easy-to-understand statements. People’s reliance on their feelings can be influenced by several factors, such as the fluency with which they process the information, the emotional context of the statement, or the repetition of the statement.
What is the role of emotion in the perception of truth as explained by Schwarz and Newman?
Emotion can contribute to the cognitive ease and fluency of processing information. When information elicits a strong emotional response, it can feel more true, even if there is no rational basis for that belief.
What is a “gut feeling” as defined by Schwarz?
Gut feelings are people’s own association with like and dislike based on subjective experiences.
true or false: a given claim is also more like to be accepted when it has a large body of supporting evidence.
TRUE
What are the implications of the cognitive science of fake news for democracy and political discourse?
The cognitive science of fake news has significant implications for democracy and political discourse. Levy and Ross (2021) suggest that fake news can erode trust in democratic institutions and increase political polarization. They argue that addressing the cognitive factors that contribute to the spread of fake news is crucial for promoting a healthy democracy and informed political discourse.
What is fake news according to Levy and Ross?
The set of reports of events of public interest (“news”) that purport to be or which mimic reliable news sources but which intend to deceive or are indifferent to truth.
In Kahan’s view, one of the factor which biases people’s cognition is their sense of belonging to a particular culture.Is this statement true or wrong?
TRUE
What are some strategies that can help people avoid being misled by fake news?
Strategies for avoiding fake news include fact-checking, seeking out multiple sources, and being skeptical of sources that have a history of disseminating false information.
describe identity protective cognition.
identity protective cognition is the idea that people unconsciously disregard evidence based on the values and beliefs of the group they are part of, thus maintaining their identity as a group member.
True or false: a reason people may continue and protect their beliefs while provided with contradictory evidence is because people focus on the few facts that serve their belief system.
TRUE
Of these, which one is true based on the reading: 1. Claims are also more likely to be accepted as true when they are compatible with how one feels. 2. Claims are more likely to be accepted when they form an incoherent story.
- is true 2. Claims are more likely to be accepted when they form a COHERENT story.
Explain in brief what is expressive responding
Expressive responding is a kind of behavior where individuals may not report their sincere beliefs, by seeking to express their allegiance to a party, a policy, or a person.
What is the False Consensus Effect?
The False Consensus Effect is when an individual believes that other people hold the same beliefs or think the same as they do.
What is Naïve Realism?
The world is the way I see it & whoever disagrees is either ill-informed (which motivates persuasion efforts) or ill-intentioned (if persuasion fails).
To what concept do Levy and Robert refer to when they mention “partisan cheerleading”?
Expressive responding
True or False When knowledge is uncertain, people turn to social consensus to gauge what is likely to be correct, if many people believe it, there’s probably something to it. Hence, people are more confident in their beliefs if others share them.
TRUE
What is motivated reasoning, and how does it relate to the acceptance of fake news?
Motivated reasoning is a cognitive bias that causes individuals to interpret information in a way that supports their pre-existing beliefs or attitudes. It can lead to the acceptance of fake news that confirms one’s existing beliefs, and the rejection of true information that challenges them.
True or False? Kahan’s hypothesis about why people believe fake news cites ignorance as the primary cause.
False. Kahan’s hypothesis is based on something he terms “identity protective cognition,’ whereby people are more likely to believe things that align with their values (and more specifically their values within the culture they identify with),
What is protective cognition?
the tendency for individuals to believe or reject evidence in particular patterns that reflect the beliefs that are most evident in their group.
People’s believing of people’s belief reports has been weaken because there are evidence which proved _________happens on politically charged topics.
belief/behaviour mismatch
Why do photos exert influence by convincing people?
They are perceived as offering evidence which makes it easier for readers to understand and imagine different claim. Photos results in people thinking that the claims are fluent, familiar and true.
According to Lewandowsky, what is easier to change: people’s behaviour or people’s attitudes?
People’s behaviour
True or False: Motivated reasoning refers to the tendency to seek out information that supports pre-existing beliefs.
TRUE
How does the illusory truth effect differ from the truth effect, and what factors can influence the magnitude of these effects?
The illusory truth effect and the truth effect are both cognitive biases that can influence people’s judgments of truth, but they differ in their mechanisms and time course, and factors such as repetition and source credibility can influence the magnitude of these effects.
What is the difference between analytic and intuitive answers when it comes to determining the truthfulness of a claim?
Analytic answers involve drawing on relevant knowledge and may require extensive information search, while intuitive answers rely on feelings of fluency and familiarity and are less demanding. The easier a claim is to process and the more familiar it feels, the more likely it is judged “true.”
What are some strategies to overcome the complexities surrounding the sharing of true information?
Frequent repitition, clear articulation of the truth in formats that are easy to understand.
What did 2015 paper titled “On the reception and detection of pseudo-profound bullshit,” Pennycook et al. investigate?
People’s ability to differentiate between profound and meaningless statements that are presented in a vague and pseudo-scientific language. The authors conducted a series of studies involving more than 800 participants, which revealed that people are often unable to distinguish between profound and pseudo-profound statements, and that they tend to rate the latter as more profound.
True or false? People are more likely to accept a claim that is compatible with their own beliefs than one that is not.
TRUE
Why do small but vocal groups have a great advantage in getting their message across to others?
When uncertain, people use social consensus to judge whether information is correct. The more that small but vocal groups repeat their message, the more familiar it feels. The more familiar it feels, the more people infer that others agree with the message, and the greater they believe the social consensus is. Therefore, people are more likely to believe their message is correct.
_______ are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that are used to simplify decision-making and problem-solving.
Heuristics
fill in the blank: While suspicion or warnings prior to exposure reduce the acceptance of false (as well as correct) information, corrections after exposure are often ____
futile
What is the primary benefit of reframing regarding it’s implications on people’s beliefs and opinions?
Reframing allows people to see their beliefs and opinions presented in a different perspective with consequences that align with the individuals opinions on a different topic.
According to Schwarz, N., & Newman, E. J. (2017), when knowledge is uncertain, people end to rely on…..? A)… their emotions and intuition. B)… logical and rational thinking. C)… social influence and group consensus. D)… memory and past experience. E)… random guessing and chance.
C)… social influence and group consensus.
How does the algorithmic design of social media aid in creating fake news?
Social media platforms algorithms are often developed to prioritize driving engagement, and what is popular among a majority of people will likely be pushed forward to other people as well. This results in content being engaging rather than accurate.
How can artificial intelligence help predict the price trend of cryptocurrencies?
Artificial intelligence can use machine learning algorithms to predict cryptocurrency price trends. It can identify trends and patterns based on market data and trading history, and predict the future trend of cryptocurrency prices. These forecast results can help investors make more informed investment decisions and obtain higher return on investment.
Determining True or False: Disinformation campaigns often target people with specific cognitive biases
TRUE . Because disinformation campaigns often target people with specific cognitive biases, because these biases can make people more susceptible to manipulation. By tailoring their messages to take advantage of these biases, disinformation campaigns can increase the likelihood that people will believe false information.
What is one of the major factors for people to believe fake news?
To preserve their worldview
According to the authors of the ‘How does the gut know truth?’, a given claim is more likely to be accepted when? a) They are verbally told a claim b) When they are shown a claim c) When a claim appears with a photo even if the photo provides no value
c) When a claim appears with a photo, even if the photo provides no value
What is it called when people assume their own beliefs and ideals are widely spread and accepted
False Consensus
True or False: According to the conversation, interdisciplinary thinking involves integrating knowledge and perspectives from multiple disciplines.
TRUE
What is the main topic of discussion in the Applied Thinking podcast episode featuring Stephan Lewandowsky?
The main topic of discussion is the importance of critical thinking and evidence-based reasoning in today’s world, and the challenges of promoting scientific literacy and rational thinking in a climate of misinformation and polarization.
Fill in the blank. According to Stephan Lewandowsky , one factor that causes people to believe conspiracy theories, is that to believe the objective truth would threaten their deeply held _____ view.
world
Why are older adults more vulnerable to backfire effects in regards to fake news?
Older adults are more vulnerable to backfire effects in regards to fake news because memory for details declines faster with age than the global feeling of familiarity when one re-encounters previously seen information. This means that older adults may be more likely to rely on their familiarity with information rather than critically evaluating the details, which can make them more susceptible to believing and spreading fake news.
Fill in the Blank: __________ and __________ are two cognitive biases that contribute to the spread and acceptance of fake news.
Confirmation bias and Availability bias are two cognitive biases that contribute to the spread and acceptance of fake news.
What does Dan Kahan’s research suggest about why some individuals may reject the scientific consensus on topics such as climate change and evolution?
Dan Kahan’s research suggests that the rejection of scientific consensus on topics such as climate change and evolution is not simply a result of cognitive limitations or ignorance. Rather, Kahan argues that our values and sense of belonging to a particular culture can bias our cognition, leading us to reject information sources that conflict with our beliefs central to that identity. This phenomenon, known as identity protective cognition, may also explain why some individuals accept fake news or reject genuine news. Kahan’s research suggests that cognitive capacity alone does not determine whether an individual will accept or reject scientific consensus, but rather how that cognitive capacity is deployed in relation to their values and cultural identity.
How might source credibility affect perception of fake news?
People may be more likely to believe and share news from sources they perceive as credible
Fill in the missing word: People are most likely to support a certain view when it is (BLANK) with their own views.
Compatible
In the podcast episode with Stephan Lewandowsky, what is the topic of discussion?
In the podcast episode titled “Applied Thinking: Uncut conversation with Stephan Lewandowsky,” the topic of discussion is applied thinking, where Lewandowsky shares insights and perspectives on the practical applications of cognitive science in various domains.
How is claim compatibility assessed in norbert schwarz’s paper
Analytically: by checking the claim against other knowledge. Intuitively: by attending to one’s subjective experiences during exposure.
Fake news has become a problem because people often do not have the ___ to distinguish between real and fake news.
Cognitive ability.
True or False: According to evidence found by Kahan (2015), white liberals and conservatives who score higher on the Ordinary Science Scale were more likely to accept the science of climate change and the truth of evolution.
FALSE. White conservatives who scored higher on the scale are in fact less likely to accept both matters, even in comparison with conservatives who score lower on the scale.
What is the term that Colbert coined to describe “truth that comes from the gut, not the book”?
Truthiness.
What does Kahan’s hypothesis about why people reject scientific consensus suggest? A) It is primarily based on cognitive limitations and ignorance. B) It is primarily based on one’s values and sense of cultural identity. C) It is primarily based on one’s level of education and knowledge. D) It is primarily based on one’s political orientation and beliefs.
Answer: B) It is primarily based on one’s values and sense of cultural identity
What is expressive responding?
Any action or interaction consciously or unconsciously communicating emotions, desires or intent.
The Republicans and Democrats may report diverging beliefs about factual claims, such as the unemployment rate, due to their expression of allegiance to a party and not because of their sincere beliefs. This type of behaviour is called …
expressive responding
What are some of the factors that make people vulnerable to fake news?
People may be more susceptible to fake news if it aligns with their pre-existing beliefs, if it is repeated frequently, and if it is presented in a visually compelling way.
According to “The Cognitive Science of Fake News”, what are some potential solutions to the problem of fake news?
The reading suggests several potential solutions to the problem of fake news, including improving media literacy and critical thinking skills, developing technological solutions such as fact-checking tools, and promoting social norms and policies that discourage the spread of misinformation.
True or False? Claims are also more likely to be accepted when they form a coherent and plausible story
TRUE
Fill in the blank: Telling people multiple times that a health claim is false (reduced/increased) acceptance of the claim when people were tested immediately, but (reduced/increased) acceptance three days later
Reduced, increased
True or false: The scientific method is a linear process that always proceeds from observation to hypothesis to experimentation to conclusion.
False. While the scientific method generally involves these steps, it is not necessarily a linear process. Scientists may need to revisit and revise their hypotheses or experimental designs as new evidence emerges, and the process of scientific inquiry can be iterative and cyclical.
What are some key factors that make echo chambers so effective at convincing people?
’- No access to opposing information - Information is repeated many times - comments are often paired with figures and other graphics increasing their familiarity and perception as evidence-based
Define the reframing method of sticky messaging.
A sticky message is a concept aiming to reframe a situation, making it easier to accept in turn causing opinion change. The message should be easy to remember, uncomplicated and have a specific goal.
What is the “illusory truth effect”?
Its a cognitive bias that can cause people to rate statements as more true simply because its something they have heard before, regardless of if they are true or not. This effect can cause people to be more vulnerable to believing and also spreading fake news.
Stephan Lewandowsky discusses an Australian study in which a sample of people were surveyed on whether they believed the science on climate change. The results showed only 6% people denied climate change but those people believed that 50% of people agreed with them. This is an example of what? a) a mental representation b) the affect heuristic c) the false consensus effect or d) narrow transfer.
c) the false consensus effect
List the 5 criteria for judging truth.
Social Consensus, Compatibility, Coherence, Credibility and Support
True or False: During the 2016 US presidential election, the most popular fake stories were shared more widely than the most popular genuine new stories.
TRUE
What is expressive responding?
Expressive responding is a phenomenon that occurs when a respondent provides misinformation to an answer to show there support to a certain person or oorganisation.
What is an anti-establishment bias?
Answer: An anti-establishment bias is a tendency to believe that people in positions of power, such as the government or scientists, are trying to conspire or further their own interests at the expense of the general public.
According to research what is the best way to recode misconstrued information?
The best way for people to let go of information which they have initially encoded is to provide them with an alternative explanation of the same situation that is valid and logical.
True or False: People are more confident in their beliefs if others share them.
Answer: True. According to the source, when knowledge is uncertain, people turn to social consensus to gauge what is likely to be correct.
How can cognitive inoculation be used to combat the spread of fake news?
Cognitive inoculation involves exposing people to weakened versions of fake news and then providing them with counterarguments to help build their resistance to false information. This technique can be used to combat the spread of fake news by making people more resistant to its influence and less likely to believe and spread false information.
Is information is just as likely to be accepted when it comes from a credible source as it is a non-credible source.
False: information is more likely to be accepted when it comes from a credible source
In the article “The Cognitive Science of Fake News”, what do the authors suggest drives exaggerated reports surrounding the belief of “fake news” in surveys?
Expressive Responding and over-reporting as a consequence of belief construction.
What does correction attempts on misinformation need to be successful?
Do not repeat the false information, making the truth fluent and familiar.
What are the five questions concerning the spread and influence of fake news outlined in Levy & Ross’ paper?
(1) Why do people share fake news? (2) To what extent do they believe it? (3) On the assumption they do believe it, what explains their belief? (4) What influence does it have over their behaviour? (5) To the extent to which its influence is negative, either epistemically or behaviourally, how can we reduce these impacts?
In relation to the Australian study, what did Stephan Lewandowsky highlight made people more resistant to opinion change? a) overestimation of opinion prevalence b) attempts at behaviour change c) reframing of information d) all of above
a) overestimation of opinion prevalence
Finish this sentence: According to Stephan Lewandowsky, a key factor determining whether a person accepts scientific evidence of climate change is …
Ones personal beliefs about how society should function, and whether accepting climate change would cause disruptions to those beliefs.
Stephen Colbert (2005) introduced a term that describes “truth that comes from the gut, not the book”. What is this term?
Truthiness
What are the 5 criteria for judging the truth?
Social consensus, compatibility, coherence, credibility, support.
True or False: When people come across a correction, they change their beliefs about misinformation
FALSE
What behaviour do researchers defines expressive responding?
Rather than expressing a belief, people may engage in expressing a response (i.e. people may express that Obama is a secret muslim not because they believe he is but rather to express their dislike of him) - Levy & Ross (2021).
According to Schwarz and Newman, what is the relationship between gut feelings and truth judgments?
Schwarz and Newman argue that gut feelings can sometimes be more accurate than conscious deliberation, especially in cases where the decision-making process is complex or uncertain.
What do the market value crash of Ethereum and the harassment of parents whose children were victims of school shootings demonstrate?
That some people do believe fake news
True or false? Participants who were in a peaceful state were more likely to believe an advertisement that promised them an adventurous holiday!
False. Peaceful participants were more likely to believe the serene holiday advertisement, while excited participants were more likely to believe the adventurous holiday. This is due to the criteria of compatibility: it was compatible with how they felt.
What was the criteria for judging truth?
Social consensus, compatibility, coherence, credibility, support
True or false: Factors such as text colour, font and accompanying imagery have no bearing on whether an individual will accept the claim presented to them.
False.
How is misinformation corrected?
Misinformation is corrected with facts. It should avoid the repetition of this misinformation and focus on making the truth/facts as fluent and familiar as possible.
True or False: People are more likely to accept a claim that is compatible with their own beliefs than one that is not.
TRUE
According to Schwarz & Newman 2017, people are more confident in their beliefs and more likely to believe scientific theories when?
Others share their beliefs and when there is consensus among scientists
What do people turn to when knowledge is uncertain?
Social concensus in order to determine what is the most likely to be the correct response.
According to “The Cognitive Science of Fake News”, what are some cognitive biases that make people susceptible to fake news?
The reading discusses several cognitive biases that make people susceptible to fake news, including confirmation bias, availability bias, and the illusion of truth effect.
While suspicion or warnings prior to exposure reduce the acceptance of false (as well as correct) information, corrections after exposure are often futile. It’s a statement included in which topic? A,Correcting misinformation B,Echo chambers C,Intuitions of truth
A,Correcting misinformation
How might the availability heuristic contribute to fake news?
By making people more likely to believe and share salient or memorable news
what does intuitive truth tests foster?
the acceptance of information on social media
True or False: The possibility of small monetary rewards for correct responses halves partisan bias
TRUE
Judging True or False:Confirmation bias does not lead to individuals being more susceptible to fake news.
False . Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out and believe information that confirms a person’s preexisting beliefs.Confirmation bias may make individuals more susceptible to fake news because they may be more inclined to believe information that is consistent with their preconceived notions, even if it is false.
describe some potential negative consequences of correcting fake news with empirical evidence.
- backfire effect - people become more committed to a claim after strong evidence is presented against it. 2. implied truth effect - fake news that isn’t corrected is now considered more valid and accurate for lack of correction. 3. tainted truth effect - factually true information is labelled as fake news to push a desired narrative.
True or false: The concept of “left-brain” versus “right-brain” thinking has been debunked by neuroscience research.
True. While popular culture has long emphasized the idea that the left and right hemispheres of the brain are responsible for different types of thinking (e.g., analytical versus creative), research has shown that this distinction is overly simplistic and not supported by neuroscience. Both hemispheres of the brain are involved in complex cognitive processes, and the brain’s regions and networks work together in highly integrated ways to support a range of cognitive and emotional functions.
How can artificial intelligence improve the security of blockchain networks?
Artificial intelligence can run on blockchain networks to detect potential security vulnerabilities or attacks. It can analyse network data, find any abnormal or potential attacks, and immediately take measures to protect the security of the blockchain network. Artificial intelligence can also use adaptive learning algorithms to continuously update and improve its detection capabilities to cope with changing network attacks.
What should correction attempts avoid to be successful?
To be successful, correction attempts should avoid the repetition of false information.
In the conversation with Stephan Lewandowsky (Episode 10), what is the main topic discussed? a) The impact of fake news on society b) The cognitive science of political epistemology c) Strategies for critical thinking and decision-making d) The role of the gut in determining truth
c) Strategies for critical thinking and decision-making
Define the meaning of partisan heuristics and provide an example of it.
A rule of thumb which is sensitive to cues of party affiliation or of identities and activities valued by or associated with their side of politics such as an individual may view a politician from their own party favourably, regardless of their actions or policy positions.
True or False: The “truthiness” effect refers to the phenomenon where information that feels true is more likely to be judged as true.
Answer: True Explanation: In the article “How does the gut know truth” by Schwarz and Newman (2017), the authors discuss the “truthiness” effect, which is a term coined by Stephen Colbert. This effect refers to the idea that people tend to judge information that feels true as actually true, even if they have no prior knowledge or evidence to support that belief.
In the “Applied thinking” video what were the two suggestions that we as a society can do to try and improve everyday thinking?
Read concepts and I ideas that don’t just make you happy and agree with your opinion. Try and find evidence for both sides of the story before determining your own opinion. Remember predictions of events given in the past and see if they pan out in the future as this will enlighten our opinions on seeing if peoples thoughts continue to be correct.
Of these, which one is true based on the reading: 1. When knowledge is uncertain, people turn to their own personal feelings to gauge what is likely to be correct. 2. When knowledge is uncertain, people turn to social consensus to gauge what is likely to be correct
- is correct. When knowledge is uncertain, people turn to social consensus to gauge what is likely to be correct.
True or False. The ‘inoculation’ technique involves the usage of a stronger, more extreme version of the misinformation in an attempt to improve people’s ability to distinguish fake news from real ones.
False. The inoculation technique uses the weakened version of misinformation instead of the stronger ones.
What is inoculation theory?
The hypothesis that psychological resistance against deceitful persuasion can be conferred by exposing people to a weakened version of the misinformation
What criteria do people use for judging truth and relevant analytic (A) or intuitive (I) evaluation?
Social Consensus > A: search database for supporting statistics, I: does it feel familiar Compatibility > A: does it mismatch general knowledge, I: is it difficult to process Coherence > A: do the elements of the story fit together logically, I: does the story flow smoothly Credibility > A: is the source an expert, I: does this source seem familiar and trustworthy Support > A: is there corroborating evidence, I: is the evidence easy to generate or recall
What is one of the factors that can increase people’s reliance on their gut feelings when judging truth?
One factor is time pressure, which reduces people’s ability to engage in analytic thinking.
In what way can the gut influence our perception of truth?
The gut will send signals to the brain that can affect our emotions and feelings of certainty, this can in turn influence our judgments about what is true or false. This unique process is known as “embodied cognition”.
True or false? Difficult to read fonts and printing errors are factors that make it harder for people to process information which can mislead people and cause thoughts to flow less smoothly.
True.
What strategies does Levy and Ross offer for combating fake news?
Media literacy education, fact-checking initiatives, and the development of algorithms that can identify and flag fake news content.
Why might people with high cognitive ability still be susceptible to believing fake news?
Their cognitive abilities may be deployed in a way that supports their prior beliefs. In the context of fake news, it is likely that they are using their cognitive abilities in order to explain away data that goes against their beliefs.
Fill in the blank: Intuitive judgments can be influenced by previous experiences and stored ________.
Knowledge
What is Fake news?
Fake news is false or misleading information presented as news. Fake news often has the aim of damaging the reputation of a person or entity, or making money through advertising revenue.
How does the gut influence decision-making?
The gut can influence decision-making through the gut-brain axis, which can transmit information about the gut’s state to the brain and affect cognitive processes such as attention and memory.
True or False: Corrections made after exposure to false information are often successful in changing people’s beliefs and reducing acceptance of the misinformation.
False. Corrections made after exposure to false information are often futile and can even backfire by increasing acceptance of the misinformation if the correct facts are not easily accessible or memorable.
According to Levy and Ross (2021), what is a key characteristic of fake news? a) High credibility b) Accurate information c) Biased presentation d) Peer-reviewed sources
c) Biased presentation
True or False: The article argues that fact-checking and debunking are effective strategies for reducing the influence of fake news on people’s beliefs.
False. The article argues that while fact-checking and debunking can be helpful, they may not be enough on their own to counteract the influence of fake news.
Why is it challenging to debunk misinformation, according to Lewandowsky?
Cognitive biases and people’s attachment to their beliefs
__________ is a kind of behavior where people may not report their sincere beliefs, but seek to express their allegiance to a party, a policy, or a person. In this case, the responses they made have an expressive function.
Expressive responding
Why may people who are only asked to come up with just two pieces of evidence more likely to support a claim as compared to those who are asked to come up with six pieces of information?
Because listing many supporting arguments highlights the difficulty of finding good support, while listing just two avoids this difficulty. In this context, people are not assessing the evidence analytically, they are instead assessing the evidence on how easy it is to come to mind.
What is the ‘backfire’ effect?
The backfire effect is elicited when people become more committed to claim following the presentative of strong evidence against it.
Which of the following is NOT an example of applied thinking? A) Using critical thinking skills to solve a math problem. B) Using critical thinking skills to decide which political candidate to vote for. C) Using critical thinking skills to solve a crossword puzzle. D) Using critical thinking skills to evaluate the reliability of a news source.
C)
In the article “The Cognitive Science of Fake News” the phrase “Obama is a Muslim” is provided as an example of what cognitive psychology concept?
Expressive Responding
True or False: Data is enough to change people’s minds
False: Data alone is not enough to change people’s minds. Instead, problems need to be reframed so they are easier to accept. “Sticky messages” can also be used so the problem does not seem too complicated and is easier to remember.
Describe this process of the backfire effect and it’s effect to the cognitive processing of fake news?
The backfire effect is a phenomenon where presenting individuals with factual information that contradicts their beliefs may reinforce their initial beliefs, rather than changing them, leading to a stronger adherence to misinformation.
In the study completed in Australia, they found that only 6% of the 5,000 people were climate change deniers. What percentage of the study did that 6% believe shared their opinion? a)80% b)25% c)75% d) 50%
d)50%
What is false consensus?
People falsely assume that other people hold the same beliefs as them by selectively focusing on reading certain types of literature or consuming media that validates their pre-existing opinion
What is the cognitive psychology behind the spread of fake news and how can it be combated?
According to Levy and Ross (2021), the cognitive psychology behind the spread of fake news involves several factors, such as the availability heuristic, confirmation bias, and motivated reasoning. To combat fake news, they suggest developing critical thinking skills and media literacy, as well as increasing transparency and fact-checking efforts.
True or False: Repetition of information has no impact on people’s perception of its truthfulness.
Answer: False Explanation: Schwarz and Newman (2017) explain that repeated exposure to information can increase the likelihood of people perceiving it as true, even if the information is false. This is known as the “illusory truth effect,” which demonstrates that familiarity with information can influence people’s judgments of its truthfulness, regardless of its actual accuracy.
Talking with Stephan Lewandowsky about people who reject specific evidence you can sometimes re-frame the problem so that people are more receptive to the evidence. True or False
TRUE
True or false: Emotional intelligence is a fixed trait that cannot be developed or improved.
False. While some aspects of emotional intelligence may have a genetic component, research has shown that emotional intelligence can be developed and improved through intentional practice and feedback. Strategies for enhancing emotional intelligence may include improving self-awareness, developing empathy and compassion for others, and practicing effective communication skills.
According to the study by Levy and Ross (2021), what is the cognitive science perspective on fake news?
The cognitive science perspective on fake news, as discussed by Levy and Ross (2021), explores the psychological processes and mechanisms involved in the creation, spread, and reception of false information.
What is the gut-brain axis?
The gut-brain axis is the bi-directional communication system between the gastrointestinal tract and the central nervous system.
Why do people believe in fake news?
Cognitive limitations or ignorance (or both).
How do emotions affect the accuracy of gut feelings?
Positive emotions may improve gut feelings by increasing sensitivity to subtle cues, while negative emotions may bias gut feelings towards negative outcomes.
According to research, the best way to get people to let go of information they have initially encoded is to provide them with an __________ explanation for the same situation
Answer: alternative
In “How Does the Gut Know Truth”, what is the main research finding related to gut feelings and lie detection?
The main research finding discussed in the reading is that people’s gut feelings can be more accurate than their conscious judgments in detecting deception, particularly in situations where conscious judgments may be biased by factors such as stereotypes or cognitive overload.
Define the gut-brain axis.
The gut-brain axis is a two-way communication system that connects the gut and the brain, allowing them to communicate with each other.
What is the relationship between the fluency and familiarity heuristics, and how do they interact to influence people’s judgments of truth?
The fluency and familiarity heuristics are related cognitive biases that influence people’s intuitive judgments of truth by making information that is easy to process and familiar seem more true, and they can interact to strengthen or weaken the effect of each other depending on the context.
What are some of the cognitive biases that contribute to the spread of fake news?
Confirmation bias, motivated reasoning, and social influence are all cognitive biases that contribute to the spread of fake news.
What are some of the cognitive factors that contribute to the spread of fake news, as discussed by Levy and Ross in their article?
Some of the cognitive factors that contribute to the spread of fake news include confirmation bias, cognitive dissonance, and motivated reasoning.
True or False: According to the article, one reason people are susceptible to fake news is because it often aligns with their pre-existing beliefs and values.
TRUE
According to Schwarz and Newman, what are the two main factors that influence people’s intuitive judgments of truth?
The two main factors that influence people’s intuitive judgments of truth are cognitive ease and fluency.
As the truth is often more complex what does Schwarz and Newman suggest?
Truth be presented clearly and frequently in a way that can be easily processed such as photos, illustrations and anecdote of what is true.
What is most commonly done by people when “knowledge is uncertain”?
People turn to a social consensus to gauge what is likely to be correct — if many people believe it, there’s probably something to it. Hence, people are more confident in their beliefs if others share them and more inclined to believe scientific theories when there is consensus among scientists.
What is expressive responding?
Expressive responding is where people assert a belief not because they believe it to be true, but to express their support of a political party, policy or person.
T or F: According to the research by Schwarz and Newman, gut feelings are primarily influenced by logical reasoning and critical thinking.
FALSE
True or false: where knowledge is uncertain, a person is more likely to believe something if many other people also believe it.
True.
What is at least one intervention of combating fake news?
Explicit corrections of information reported and warning labels attached to fake news indicating misinformation.
True or false: people are more likely to believe statements when they are made in a familiar and easy to understand accent
TRUE
True or false: Information that is inconsistent with one’s beliefs elicits negative feelings and is processed less fluently than information that is consistent with one’s beliefs
TRUE
What is the implied truth effect?
The implied truth effect is the tendency to believe that information is true simply because it has been heard repeatedly, regardless of whether it is actually based on credible evidence. The repetition of information can create a sense of familiarity and fluency, leading people to believe that it must be true. This effect can contribute to the spread of fake news and misinformation.
True or false? To be successful in correcting misinformation, correction attempts should avoid the repetition of false information and instead focus on making the truth as fluent and familiar as possible.
TRUE
What did Kahan consider to be instrumental to an individual’s acceptance of fake news?
Our sense of belonging to a particular culture/group, such that a person will reject ideas that conflict with the dominant views of that culture.
According to comedian Stephen Colbert 2005, what is truthiness defined as?
Truth that comes from the gut, not the book
True or False: people may engage in expressive responding by reporting beliefs that are not necessarily true but help them express their support to a certain political party or candidate.
TRUE
What is Anti-establishment bias?
An automatic dismissal of information presented by an establishment or institution for fear of it conspiring against the individual.
In the article by Schwarz and Newman (2017), what is the focus of their research on the gut?
In their research, Schwarz and Newman (2017) investigate how the gut, metaphorically referring to people’s intuitive judgments and feelings, can influence the perception of truth and accuracy.
What should correction attempts focus on to be successful?
Correction attempts should focus on making the truth as fluent and familiar as possible.
Pennycook and Rand (2019) did a study on the utilization of the widsom of crowds. What were their finding?
The study found that crowdsourced judgements of news source quality by laypeople correlated strongly with the judgements of professional fact checkers
What did Lewandowsky and colleagues (2012) find greatly reduce reliance on rebutted information?
An alternative explanation of the event.
True or False: Intuitive truth tests on social media can lead to the acceptance of information based on social consensus and familiarity.
True.
Fill in the blanks: One effective strategy to combat the influence of fake news is to provide ______ information after the ______ exposure.
Corrective, initial
In the study by Schwarz and Newman (2017), what is the focus of the research? a) Cognitive science and fake news b) The role of the gut in political epistemology c) Psychological mechanisms for detecting truth d) Applied thinking and cognitive biases
c) Psychological mechanisms for detecting truth
What are two competing models for explaining fake news beliefs?
The (cognitive) deficit model and the motivated cognition model
What are the criteria for judging truth?
- Social consensus - Compatibility - Coherence - Credibility - Support
What are the five criteria people often use to consider if something is true?
Social consensus, compatibility, coherence, credibility and support
A study by Stephan Lewandowsky and colleagues (2012) found that the reliance on false explanations was greatly reduced when they were given an ______ explanation.
Alternative.
what is the phenomena of naïve realism?
the belief that the world is the way I see it and whoever disagrees is either ill-informed (which motivates persuasion efforts) or ill-intentioned (if persuasion fails).
True or false? The extent to which people overestimate the prevalence of their opinion, makes them more resistant to opinion change.
True.
In what ways do bodily sensations influence decision-making?
Bodily sensations such as hunger, thirst, and fatigue can influence decision-making by affecting cognitive processes such as attention, memory, and judgment. For example, hunger may increase impulsivity and risk-taking behaviour, while fatigue may impair decision-making by reducing cognitive resources.
TRUE/FALSE: Corrections after exposure to false information are often effective in changing beliefs.
False. Corrections after exposure to false information are often futile as they often confront misleading statements with facts. This works as long as the facts are highly accessible, but backfires after a delay because it ignores the downstream consequences for intuitive truth assessments. Extensive thought about the misinformation at the correction phase increases fluent processing when the misinformation is re-encountered at a later time. To be successful, correction attempts should avoid the repetition of false information and instead focus on making the truth as fluent and familiar as possible.
According to the ‘How does the gut know truth?’ article, People are less likely to accept a claim that is compatible with their own beliefs than one that is not. True or False?
FALSE
How do small vocal groups use social consensus to their advantage?
By repeating their message so that it feels familiar to people and they are more likely to agree.
What is the backfire effect and how does it relate to correcting fake news?
The backfire effect is when people become more entrenched in their beliefs after being presented with corrective information that contradicts those beliefs. This effect can make correcting fake news difficult because people may resist the correction and become even more convinced of the false information.
How do cognitive biases and heuristics contribute to the dissemination and acceptance of fake news?
Levy and Ross (2021) argue that cognitive biases and heuristics, such as the availability heuristic and confirmation bias, contribute to the dissemination and acceptance of fake news. These biases can lead people to rely on easily accessible information that confirms their preexisting beliefs and disregard information that contradicts them. Additionally, motivated reasoning, which involves seeking out and interpreting information in ways that support one’s beliefs, can further perpetuate the spread of fake news.
Question: Stephan Lewandowsky emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary thinking in applied thinking. What does interdisciplinary thinking involve? A) Focusing solely on one’s area of expertise B) Integrating knowledge and perspectives from multiple disciplines C) Relying on intuition and gut feelings in decision-making D) Avoiding cognitive biases by using logical reasoning exclusively
Answer: B) Integrating knowledge and perspectives from multiple disciplines
define the false consensus effect
people falsely assume that other people think the same way and hold the same beliefs as themselves.
When knowledge is uncertain, people turn to social consensus to gauge what is likely to be correct. How would one assess consensus analytically vs intuitively?
Analytically- search databases, look for supporting statistics, or poll a group or audience Intuitively- does it feel familiar?
True or False: Correction attempts should avoid the repetition of false information and instead focus on making the truth as fluent and familiar as possible.
True.
True or false: Media coverage should refrain from re-stating false claims and instead focus on delivering the truth in an effective manner.
TRUE
How does the gut instinct influence our judgment of truth, according to Schwarz and Newman?
The gut instinct can influence our judgment of truth by causing us to rely on intuitive and emotional responses, rather than rational analysis.
True or False: When a claim is accepted as true because it feels fluent and familiar this is an example of analytic evaluation.
FALSE
If someone says, “Bush did 9/11,” not because they genuinely believe he did but because they don’t like him, what is this an example of?
Expressive Responding
True or False: Claims are more likely to be accepted as true when they form a coherent and plausible story.
True. According to the information provided, coherent stories that are easier to process are more likely to be accepted as true because they give a sense that things hang together and make sense.
How can artificial intelligence help cryptocurrency traders formulate better trading strategies?
Artificial intelligence can analyse a large amount of market data and transaction history through deep learning algorithms to identify trends and patterns in the cryptocurrency market. These analysis results can help traders formulate more accurate trading strategies to improve the return on investment and reduce risks.
Fill in the blank: The authors examine the role of confirmation bias, motivated reasoning, and _______ in the spread of fake news.
Cognitive heuristics
True or False: Motivated reasoning is the process of selectively seeking out and interpreting information in a way that supports one’s preexisting beliefs, values, or interests.
TRUE
What is the term used by researchers to describe behaviour where people seek to express their allegiance to a party, a policy, or a person rather than report their sincere beliefs?
expressive responding
What is the impact of coherence on accepting claims?
Claims are more likely to be accepted when they form a coherent and plausible story, as coherent stories are easier to process than incoherent stories with internal contradictions. The ease with which stories can be processed serves as an experiential marker for how well things hang together, and as long as thoughts flow smoothly, the story seems to make sense.
Which did Stephan Lewandowsky say was easier to change? Behaviours or attitudes?
Behaviour
True or False: People don’t misrepresent their true beliefs if they know they are controversial, because they like to stand firm in what they believe
FALSE
What is the “Truthiness bias”?
Its the tendency where individuals belive information that feels true to them, even if the information lacks empirical evidence or logical reasoning.
What is ‘post-truth’?
Circumstances in which objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotions and personal belief
True or False: If a claim/idea is processed easily and fluently, it is more likely to be regarded as true
True: Processing fluency in information tends to be regarded as more truthful than information that requires cognitive effort to process.
What role does social identity play in the consumption and sharing of fake news?
Social identity can play a significant role in the consumption and sharing of fake news. People often seek out and share information that supports their social group or political ideology, even if it is not based on credible evidence. This can lead to the spread of fake news within particular communities or social networks.
In a study by Newman, Garry, Bernstein, Kantner & Lindsey (2012), participants were more likely to believe “Magnesium is the liquid metal inside a thermometer” when the statement was provided with what? A) A testimony from a public figure B) A study reference C) A photo D) A justification for the mechanism
C) A photo
What is meant by processing fluency?
Processing fluency refers to the ease or difficulty with which information is processed mentally. When information is processed fluently, it is easier to understand and remember.
Can a corrective article reduce beliefs in fake news?
Yes, however some corrective articles can elicit a “backfire effect”.
Explain false consensus
When people believe that they share common beliefs with others and that they are appropriate,
What is false consensus?
False consensus is when a group of people believe that they are apart of the majority with their opinion when they are not.
What should correction attempts of misinformation look like to be effective?
Offering an alternative (=the truth), avoiding repetition of the false statement, repeating the truth, making the truth easy to process (clearly articulated).
How can compatibility in regard to beliefs be assessed?
By analytically checking the claim against other knowledge or by intuitively attending to one’s subjective experiences during exposure
define antiestablishment bias
a bias that assumes the government and scientists are trying to conspire or further their own interests at the expense of the public.
True or False: One of natural hypothesis for why people believe fake news because of ignorance or cognitive limitations
TRUE
True or False: Individuals with lower cognitive capacities have a greater capacity to explain away inconvenient data
False: Individuals with greater cognitive capacities also have a greater capacity to explain away inconvenient data
