Class 11: Brain training, transfer, limits of expertise, deliberate practice, mental representations, and chunking

Question 1

In some fields, if you follow specific training methods with diligence, you can become an expert. What are the 4 characteristics that these fields have in common?

Answer 1

1. There are always objective or semi-objective ways to win 2. These fields are competitive enough to create incentive for practice and improvement 3. These fields are generally well established 4. There are a subset of individuals who serve as teachers and coaches who develop sophisticated training techniques

Question 2

According to “Peak: Secrets from the New Science of Expertise,” does deliberate practice: a) Depend solely on natural ability and genetics b) Involve only physical repetition of skills c) Both produce and depend on mental representations d) Require a fixed amount of time for each practice session

Answer 2

Answer: c) Both produce and depend on mental representations

Question 3

Why did chess expert Patrick Wolff have difficulty recalling some configurations of chess pieces but not others?

Answer 3

His expertise is focused on patterns, so he remembers pieces in the context of an ongoing game. When the pieces are randomised, there is no pattern, and his expertise does not transfer to the task.

Question 4

Q: What is deliberate practice? A) Mindlessly repeating a task B) Performing a task without any guidance C) Practicing with the goal of improving specific skills D) Practicing for a certain amount of time each day

Answer 4

A: C) Practicing with the goal of improving specific skills.

Question 5

The ability to identify patterns in a collection of things that might appear random or confused to someone with less developed mental representations is a characteristic of experts performance in almost every field.Is this true or false?

Answer 5

TRUE

Question 6

According to Chapter 4 of “Peak,” what are the three key characteristics that define the “Gold Standard” of expert performance?

Answer 6

The three key characteristics that define the “Gold Standard” of expert performance, as described in Chapter 4 of “Peak,” are deliberate practice, feedback, and the ability to perform under pressure.

Question 7

According to “Peak: Secrets from the new science of expertise,” innate talent is the most important factor in achieving expertise.

Answer 7

FALSE

Question 8

what is a mental representation?

Answer 8

a mental structure that correctly corresponds to an object, idea, or concept.

Question 9

When shown chessboards with the chess pieces arranged randomly, how did the mid-range player and chess master do in remembering the positions of the pieces in regard to the novice chess player?

Answer 9

The same. They were only able to get two or three pieces right.

Question 10

Fill in the Blanks: The ACTIVE trial demonstrates clearly the concept of _________ improvement, also referred to as _______ transfer.

Answer 10

Training specific, narrow.

Question 11

mental representation

Answer 11

a mental structure that corresponds to an object, idea, collection of information, or anything else concrete or abstract that the brain is thinking about.

Question 12

What is the name of the single largest brain-training intervention that Dan Simons mentioned?

Answer 12

The ACTIVE trial (involved about 3,000 older adults). The main result showed that brain training may improve training-specific tasks. E.g., if you trained on a reaction time task, you’ll likely improve on that reaction time task or something very similar (a.k.a., narrow transfer).

Question 13

What is a mental representation?

Answer 13

A mental structure that corresponds to an object, idea, collection of information, or anything else concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about.

Question 14

Fill in the blank. During class, a peer mentions burgers, and immediately you see an image of a burger in your mind. The image that appears is your ____ ____ of a burger.

Answer 14

Mental representation.

Question 15

How is a book mentally represented when writing?

Answer 15

write well, develop a mental representation ahead of time to guide you, then monitor and evaluate being ready to modify if necessary.

Question 16

True/False Both formal discipline theory and transfer by identical elements are based on modern research on transfer of training.

Answer 16

FALSE

Question 17

Ericsson and Pool argue that expert performers develop mental representations that allow them to efficiently process and retrieve information relevant to their domain. These mental representations are often referred to as __________.

Answer 17

chunks.

Question 18

True or False: There is substantial publication bias in the Brain Training literature

Answer 18

True: The authors of the systematic review of brain training programs highlighted the publication bias present in the literature.

Question 19

True or False. One advantage of the brain training program is that it improves abilities to transfer skills into broader contexts.

Answer 19

False. Evidence demonstrated that brain training programs only affect narrow transfer and learning processes in specific tasks.

Question 20

Q: According to Ericsson and Pool, what is the difference between deliberate practice and regular practice? A) Deliberate practice is only for experts B) Deliberate practice involves feedback and specific goals C) Regular practice is more enjoyable D) Regular practice requires less time and effort

Answer 20

A: B) Deliberate practice involves feedback and specific goals, while regular practice may lack those components.

Question 21

What is the term used to describe the process by which experts in a given domain become so proficient that their performance becomes “automatic”? A) Mental modeling B) Skill acquisition C) Deliberate practice D) Proceduralization

Answer 21

D) Proceduralization

Question 22

True or false: When shown random chess patterns for 5 seconds, professional chess players can almost perfectly re-create them.

Answer 22

False. Chess players outperform lay people only when there is “chess relevant meaning” in the patterns they were shown.

Question 23

True or False. Brain games (such as Lumosity, CogMed, etc.) significantly improve broad cognitive abilities and aid general daily activities.

Answer 23

False.

Question 24

does a mental representation have to be accurate?

Answer 24

no, mental representations can be inaccurate, and can vary in detail. however, accuracy may impact the quality of results when completing a task.

Question 25

true or false: using standard psychological techniques, the researchers examined what was going on in the brains of climbers when they surveyed the various holds.

Answer 25

TRUE

Question 26

Define the item ‘Placebo Effect’.

Answer 26

Placebo Effect: Refers to the phenomenon where a person experiences a perceived improvement in a condition or symptom due to receiving a treatment that has no therapeutic effect, but believes it to be effective.

Question 27

According to Ericsson and Pool’s “Peak,” what is the primary focus of mental representations? A) Organization of skills and knowledge B) Development of physical abilities C) Understanding of emotional states D) Acquisition of linguistic fluency

Answer 27

A) Organization of skills and knowledge

Question 28

True/False: The ability to recognize and remember meaningful patterns arises from the way chess players develop their abilities

Answer 28

TRUE

Question 29

True or False: Brain training programs have been scientifically proven to improve cognitive functions such as memory and attention.

Answer 29

False. While brain training programs claim to improve cognitive functions, the scientific evidence supporting these claims is limited and often not strong.

Question 30

What is the simplest example of how short-term memory comes into play in our lives?

Answer 30

Memorizing lists of things.

Question 31

What are mental representations?

Answer 31

Cognitive structures that experts use to organise and store information about their domain. Mental representations can be developed and refined through deliberate practice, leading to increased expertise.

Question 32

Why is deliberate practice more effective than other forms of practice?

Answer 32

Deliberate practice is more effective because it is goal-oriented and specifically targets areas for improvement. It involves breaking down complex skills into smaller, manageable components, allowing individuals to focus on specific aspects of their performance. This approach, coupled with immediate feedback and repetition, facilitates continuous refinement of mental representations and promotes the development of expertise.

Question 33

What is a mental representation

Answer 33

A mental structure that corresponds to a idea, object or collection of information

Question 34

Chess masters visualise the physical chess pieces on a board when asked about what they see when they are mentally examining a chess position.

Answer 34

FALSE

Question 35

What is an alternative explanation for some of the evidence showing that people improved with brain training tasks?

Answer 35

practice effects- if you practice something, you’re likely to get better at it.

Question 36

According to Ericsson and Pool what is blindfolded chess a great example of?

Answer 36

Purposeful practise.

Question 37

What is “knowledge transforming” as referred to by Ericsson and Pool?

Answer 37

It is the process of a writer’s knowledge evolving and getting changed by the process of writing

Question 38

fiil in the blank: experienced climbers had developed mental representations of holds that allowed them to know without _____, what sort of grip was required for each hold they saw

Answer 38

conscious thought

Question 39

Define Mental Representations

Answer 39

A mental structure that corresponds to an object, an idea, a collection of information or anything else that the brain is thinking about.

Question 40

Chapter 4 of “Peak: Secrets from the new science of expertise” explores the concept of deliberate practice and how it can lead to the development of expertise. What are some of the key elements of deliberate practice, and how can individuals apply these principles to improve their own skills and knowledge?

Answer 40

Deliberate practice involves intentionally practicing a skill or domain with a focus on specific goals, feedback, and repetition. Key elements of deliberate practice include breaking down complex tasks into smaller, manageable parts, seeking out feedback from experts, identifying weaknesses and areas for improvement, and dedicating a significant amount of time and effort to practice. Individuals can apply these principles to improve their own skills and knowledge by setting clear goals, seeking out constructive feedback, and creating a practice routine that focuses on specific areas for improvement.

Question 41

active control groups are used for

Answer 41

controlling against placebo effects

Question 42

True or False Grand Master Patrick Wolff was able to memorise the pieces on a chess board better than a novice player when the pieces were set up like someone had played the game and when the pieces were set up randomly on the board.

Answer 42

FALSE- Grand Master Patrick Wolff performed immensely better than novice players when the pieces were set up like someone had been playing however, when the pieces were set up randomly he did not perform any better than the novice.

Question 43

To determine true or false: provide a few seemingly random words (was smelling the one in front of him for peanuts, he was so hungry, there were hardly any women so he could contain) and ask people to repeat them. The first method of repetition is to rearrange the words into meaningful sentences, e.g. “The woman in front of him was eating peanuts and smelled so good that he could barely control his hunger.” The second method of repetition is to ask the person to recall the words word by word. Those who used the first method remembered about the same number of words as those who used the second method.

Answer 43

False. People who use the first method are able to remember more words because when words are arranged to have meaning, people are able to use pre-existing ‘mental representations’ to understand them, and thus will remember them better

Question 44

According to Simons, what effects DID the systematic review of brain training studies discover?

Answer 44

Effects of practice, learning, and narrow transfer of training to very similar tasks.

Question 45

Which of the following is NOT a common short-coming of RCTs? a) Missing critical tests b) Inadequate control groups C) Selective reporting of outcomes D) Representative samples

Answer 45

d) is incorrect, non-representative samples are a shortcoming

Question 46

What are mental representations?

Answer 46

Mental models used by experts to process and organise information.

Question 47

True or false: There is substantial evidence and hardly any contradiction in the literature about the effectiveness of brain trainings.

Answer 47

False. Unfortunately, there are multiple contradictions and unethical research practices evident in brain training literature.

Question 48

What is the concept of transfer in relation to brain training?

Answer 48

The concept of transfer refers to the idea that improvements in one cognitive function as a result of brain training will transfer to other cognitive functions.

Question 49

According to Ericsson & Pool (2016), what differentiates the best musicians from the mediocre ones?

Answer 49

The quality of the mental representations they create.

Question 50

What are some of shortcomings of Random Control Trials in brain-training research?

Answer 50

1. Small or non-representative samples 2. Inadequate control groups 3. Selective Reporting of Outcomes 4. Missing Critical Tests 5. Opaque Publishing Practices

Question 51

TRUE OR FALSE: When recalling randomly generated positions of chess pieces, the expert performed better than novices

Answer 51

FALSE - the expert only performed better when positions were not randomly generated and are used in chess

Question 52

True or False: Individuals may need to develop new mental representations when they are entering new domains or trying to learn new skills, rather than to rely solely on their existing mental representations.

Answer 52

True. This is because mental representation is very “domain specific” as it applies only to the skill for which they were developed.

Question 53

True or False. Chess experts consistently do better than novice’s at recalling positions on a chess board both when randomly generated.

Answer 53

False - when the positions are randomly generated experts do no better than novices at recalling the position of chess pieces on a board

Question 54

What fundamental concept do brain training games rely on?

Answer 54

Generalisation. The claim that a skill or capacity refined in one specific domain will also apply or affect performance in another domain.

Question 55

What are the key findings of the 1973 classic study of expert chess memory by William Chase and Herbert Simon?

Answer 55

An expert player remembered almost all of the pieces correctly. An amateur and a novice recalled far fewer pieces and made more mistakes. But when the regular chess positions were replaced by randomly generated positions, the expert was no better than the novice.

Question 56

Mental representations are internal models of external reality. True/False?

Answer 56

True. Mental representations are internal models of external reality.

Question 57

In Malcolm Gladwell’s 2008 study, he claimed that someone can become profficient in any endeavour after practising it for approximately ten thousand hours. Why is this a problematic claim?

Answer 57

It is problematic for three key reasons. Firstly, there is nothing special about the ‘10,000 hours rule’ Malcolm Gladwell produced. This number is not the requirement, as the amount of hours required to become proficient in a task varies from person to person, and field to field. Secondly, Gladwell misinterpreted the number of voilinists in his study that had reached the 10,000 hours point. He falsely believed they all had by age 20, when in reality only about half of them had. Lastly, in his study he didn’t distinguish between ‘deliberate practise’ and any sort of activity that could be labeled ‘practise.’

Question 58

In Chapter 3 of “Peak,” Ericsson and Pool suggest that individuals with more extensive and elaborate mental representations are able to: A) Remember information more efficiently B) Develop higher levels of creativity C) Solve problems more effectively D) Communicate more persuasively

Answer 58

C) Solve problems more effectively

Question 59

A ______ ______________ is a mental structure that corresponds to an object, an idea, a collection of information or anything else concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about

Answer 59

mental representation

Question 60

What are mental representations on how do they influence reasoning?

Answer 60

A mental representation is a mental structure that corresponds to an object, an idea or a collection of information that or anything else, concrete or abstract that the brain conjures up. Mental representations permit reasoning about unfamiliar situations drawing on the vast knowledge base developed over many years. When highly experienced individuals lack these relevant mental representations and associated knowledge are confronted with unfamiliar situations, they might perform poorly on tasks they otherwise would be good at.

Question 61

In the 1973 experiment featuring Patrick Wolff, what was Patricks explanation for how he was trying to remember the 5 second images?

Answer 61

He was trying to make logical connections and to make those connections “make sense”

Question 62

What was founf to be the difference between the abilities of the violin students.

Answer 62

The amount of time spent training in solitary was significantly different between the top groups. With more timeing being spent more indictave of better skills.

Question 63

deliberate practice involves developing _____ mental representations

Answer 63

more efficient

Question 64

True/False The controversy in the debate about brain training is whether and when practicing one task will improve performance on untrained tasks.

Answer 64

TRUE

Question 65

Name any three of the characteristics of Deliberate Practice

Answer 65

Answers could include: 1.Takes place outside of one’s comfort zone 2. Has well-defined, specific goals 3. Requires the person’s full attention and conscious action 4. Involves feedback and modifications of effort based on feedback 5. Produces and depends on mental representations 6. Building on or modifying pre-existing skills 9. Pre-existing effective training techniques

Question 66

What does the coined word “chunks” mean?

Answer 66

It was a word given by Bill Chase and Herb Simon to describe a chess player memorizing patterns (i.e. interactions among pieces) for storage in long-term memory.

Question 67

What makes deliberate practice different from other sorts of purposeful practice?

Answer 67

1. It requires a field that is already reasonably well developed such that there is a level of competition and show a superior level of performance 2. It requires a teacher who can provide practice activities designed to help improve performance Thus, purposeful practice is purposeful and informed whereas deliberate practice is informed and guided by the best performers’ accomplishments and by an understanding of what these expert performers do to excel.

Question 68

What is the “ten-thousand hour rule” and is it true?

Answer 68

It is the idea that it takes 10,000 hours to become a master in most fields. This is not necessarily true, as numbers vary from field to field, and doesn’t take into account many factors such as age, averaging techniques or type/quality of practice.

Question 69

Why is it important do analyse past mistakes and weaknesses in a game of chess?

Answer 69

So that future games can avoid these pitfalls.

Question 70

What is a mental representation?

Answer 70

Mental representations are, objects and structures in the mind with semantic properties. It allows individuals to perceive, process, understand, and recall stimuli.

Question 71

What is the difference in deliberate and purposeful practice?

Answer 71

Deliberate practice is purposeful and informed, requiring a field that is well-developed and teachers who can provide practice activities.

Question 72

Does purposeful or deliberate practice require a teacher to provide practice activities?

Answer 72

Deliberate practice

Question 73

What is the potential downside of nudging according to Ritchie (2022)?

Answer 73

According to Ritchie (2022), the potential downside of nudging is that it can be used for manipulative purposes. Nudging can be used to influence people to make decisions that are not in their best interest or that they would not have made otherwise. Therefore, it is important to ensure that nudges are transparent and aligned with people’s values and preferences.

Question 74

Y/N: A chessplayer’s memory is very context dependent?

Answer 74

Yes. It is only for the sort that would appear in a normal game.

Question 75

How do Ericsson and Pool define expertise?

Answer 75

Ericsson and Pool define expertise as a high level of performance in a specific domain that is the result of extensive training and deliberate practice, rather than innate talent.

Question 76

Deliberate Practice

Answer 76

Type of focused and intentional practice that is aimed at improving a specific skill or ability It involves breaking down a task into its component parts, identifying areas of weakness, and working on those areas with concentrated effort and feedback

Question 77

What is deliberate practice?

Answer 77

Focused, structured, and targeted efforts to improve specific skills.

Question 78

To determine true or false: a chessboard with pieces arranged in the pattern of a real game of chess, in the same amount of time an expert can remember the position of the most pieces, followed by an intermediate player, and finally the least remembered by a novice.

Answer 78

True. Experienced players encode the positions of pieces on the board in a more efficient way by remembering the correlation between chess positions, rather than simply remembering which piece is in which position.

Question 79

What is the difference between “mental representations” and “raw data” as described in Chapter 3 of “Peak” by Ericsson and Pool?

Answer 79

According to Ericsson and Pool, “mental representations” are the internalised structures that experts use to organise and make sense of information, while “raw data” refers to the unprocessed information that we encounter in the world.

Question 80

Why can passive control groups in psychological research be problematic?

Answer 80

A passive control group may exhibit differences from the treatment group that are not related to the intended manipulation of the independent variable. For example, they may have had less social interaction or less practice with a computer, which could still impact the dependent variable being measured.

Question 81

Define “the gold standard” in the context of expertise.

Answer 81

The gold standard is the benchmark of expert performance against which other individuals can be compared.

Question 82

(True/False) Deliberate practices involve feedback and modification of efforts in response to the feedback

Answer 82

TRUE

Question 83

Why are we more likely to memorise a well constructed sentence rather than a randomly constructed one?

Answer 83

Our brains are wired to identify meaning and relationships, as well as respond to patterns.

Question 84

n Chapter 3 of “Peak,” what is the “chunking” process, and how does it relate to the development of mental representations?

Answer 84

“Chunking” is a process of grouping individual pieces of information together into larger, more meaningful units, which can then be processed and stored more efficiently in long-term memory. According to Ericsson and Pool in Chapter 3 of “Peak,” this process is a key factor in the development of mental representations, as it allows experts to organise and access their knowledge more quickly and effectively.

Question 85

What are mental representations?

Answer 85

Answer: Mental representations are cognitive structures that allow us to organize and make sense of information in our minds.

Question 86

Why do chess experts perform better than novices at recalling non-randomly places pieces on a chess board?

Answer 86

They use logic and knowledge of chess strategy to understand why the pieces are where they are. This leads them to make errors with pieces that are unimportant to the strategy of the game

Question 87

What is the term coined by Bill Chase and Herb Simon for recognizing patterns rather than specifics, relying on long-term memory rather than short-term to aid in memorizing larger sets?

Answer 87

Chunks.

Question 88

How does expertise and domain-specific knowledge influence memory, and how do chess experts use their knowledge to improve their memory performance?

Answer 88

Expertise and domain-specific knowledge strongly influence memory performance. Chess experts can recognize familiar patterns and structures in chess positions, which helps them encode and recall information more efficiently. They also have strategies for dealing with novel information that do not fit those patterns, but these strategies require more cognitive effort.

Question 89

In the 1973 experiment featuring Patrick Wolf, what was the difference between the expert player and the amateur players?

Answer 89

That the images of specific chess postions were remembered almost perfectly by the expert, but when randomly generated chess postions were showed, there was no difference between the expert and amateur player

Question 90

what is a mental representation?

Answer 90

“a mental structure that corresponds to an object, an idea, a collection of information, or anything else, concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about”

Question 91

True or False: A key fact about mental representation is that they are “domain specific”.

Answer 91

TRUE

Question 92

According to Ericsson and Pool, what differentiates a good musician from a lesser one?

Answer 92

Their ability to have an accurate and detailed mental representation of the piece they are trying to practice.

Question 93

The key to achieving expertise is not simply practicing a skill, but engaging in __________ practice, which involves pushing oneself outside of one’s comfort zone and focusing on improving weaknesses.

Answer 93

deliberate

Question 94

Do we have to always follow the ten thousand-hour rule to become experts in a field?

Answer 94

Yes and no. As long as we apply the principles of deliberate practice, and undergo related practices that are designed to achieve a certain goal, we are able to drastically improve particular aspects of performance.

Question 95

What is the brain training industry?

Answer 95

The industry of selling programs that improve your cognitive skills on other things

Question 96

T/F Mental representations are only important for experts and not for novices.

Answer 96

Answer: False. Explanation: In “Peak: Secrets from the new science of expertise” by Ericsson and Pool (2016), mental representations are described as critical for both experts and novices. Mental representations help individuals structure and interpret information in their domain of expertise. While experts have more complex and refined mental representations, novices also benefit from developing them. The development of mental representations is a key part of improving performance and expertise in any skill or domain.

Question 97

What is the role of feedback in deliberate practice?

Answer 97

Feedback allows experts to identify areas for improvement and adjust their practice strategies accordingly.

Question 98

What are some measures of cognitive performance?

Answer 98

tests of processing speed, reasoning, intelligence, pattern recognition, and similar constructs, have long been used to predict academic and professional success

Question 99

True or False: In the video “Memory for Chess Positions,” grandmaster Patrick Wolff discusses the importance of brute force memorization for remembering chess positions.

Answer 99

False. In the video, grandmaster Patrick Wolff discusses his strategies for memorizing and visualizing chess boards, highlighting the importance of chunking and pattern recognition. He argues that chunking or breaking down complex information into smaller, more manageable units, is essential for memorization. Wolff’s approach emphasizes using mental representations to solve complex problems, rather than brute-force memorization.

Question 100

True or False? Deliberate practice takes place outside one’s comfort zone and requires a student to constantly try things that are just beyond his or her current abilities. Thus, it demands near-maximal effort, which is generally not enjoyable.

Answer 100

True

Question 101

The core idea of a brain training program mentioned in the lecture by Simons was?

Answer 101

That by practicing one thing, you can get better at other things.

Question 102

True or False. Deliberate practice can help individuals refine and develop their mental representations to improve their performance.

Answer 102

True. Deliberate practice involves focused and challenging activities designed to improve specific skills or aspects of performance, and can lead to the refinement and development of more complex and well-organized mental representations.

Question 103

What factors made Patrick Wolff’s chess memory task more difficult?

Answer 103

The importance of pieces (some pieces hold less significance so he couldn’t retain their placement) Logical connections of placement When the board was randomised

Question 104

How do modern-day memory competitors use techniques of deliberate practice?

Answer 104

They learn from the best predecessors and develop training techniques based on what worked best to produce the same results and abilities.

Question 105

What is dividing large pieces of information into smaller units called?

Answer 105

Chunking

Question 106

True or False - Mental representations are static mental structures that are developed in early childhood.

Answer 106

False. Mental representations develop and become more sophisticated through practice and experience.

Question 107

True or False, Experts in a particular field develop mental representations that allow them to recognize and respond to patterns in their domain of expertise.

Answer 107

TRUE

Question 108

What are mental representations?

Answer 108

Mental representations are internal images that we form in our minds to help us understand and interact with the world around us.

Question 109

What is the importance of working with a skilled coach or mentor?

Answer 109

A skilled coach or mentor can provide feedback and guidance, help individuals develop effective practice strategies, and accelerate the development of expertise.

Question 110

How do mental representations differ between novices and experts?

Answer 110

Novices typically possess less detailed and less organized mental representations compared to experts. Experts have developed more intricate and refined mental representations through extensive practice and experience, allowing them to quickly recognize patterns, make connections, and solve problems in their field of expertise.

Question 111

What is the main thing that sets experts apart from everyone else?

Answer 111

The years of practice expert goes through have changed the neural circuitry in their brains to produce highly specialised mental representations.

Question 112

In the ‘Do “Brain-Training” Programs Work?’ article, a survey was conducted in which a number of participants defined brain training as what?

Answer 112

“Brain training is exercises or activities that do each of the following things: “improve memory,” “sharpen intellectual skills,” “help improve my attention span.” “help me think faster,” “prevent memory loss,” and “increase IQ.”

Question 113

What is the difference between deliberate practice and regular practice?

Answer 113

Deliberate practice involves focused, goal-directed practice that involves pushing beyond one’s comfort zone, receiving feedback, and continuously refining one’s skills. Regular practice, on the other hand, is less structured and tends to involve repetition of already mastered skills.

Question 114

What is the effectiveness of nudging according to the meta-analysis by Mertens et al. (2022)?

Answer 114

According to the meta-analysis by Mertens et al. (2022), nudging is effective in changing behavior across various domains such as health, environment, and finance. However, the size of the effect depends on the specific context and implementation of the nudge.

Question 115

What is a mental representation? a. A visual representation of a concept or idea in the mind. b. A physical representation of a concept or idea in the brain. c. A symbolic representation of a concept or idea in the mind. d. A linguistic representation of a concept or idea in the brain

Answer 115

c. A mental representation is a symbolic representation of a concept or idea in the mind. It is a mental construct that allows us to perceive, understand, and manipulate the world around us.

Question 116

What are mental representations?

Answer 116

Mental representations refer to the internal mental images or concepts that individuals use to represent information from the world around them. These representations can be based on sensory experiences, language, or other forms of information processing. They help individuals to make sense of the world and to interact with it effectively. Mental representations can be conscious or unconscious and can take many forms, such as mental images, schemas, or mental models.

Question 117

What is inattentional blindness, and how does it affect our ability to perceive unexpected objects or events?

Answer 117

Inattentional blindness is the phenomenon of not noticing unexpected objects or events when one is focused on a specific task or goal. It can limit our ability to perceive important information in our environment and affect our decision-making.

Question 118

What do the authors of Peak posit allows experts of subjects to better assimilate information relating to their subject of focus?

Answer 118

Familiarity. Examples given include chess experts reading chess notation, musicians reading scores, etc.

Question 119

What is Mental Representation as defined in the text?

Answer 119

A mental representation is a mental structure that corresponds to an object, an idea, a collection of information, or anything else, concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about.

Question 120

What is expert intuition?

Answer 120

Expert intuition is the ability of experts to make quick and accurate decisions in real-world situations. It is a result of extensive experience and well-developed mental representations.

Question 121

What is deliberate practice? a. Practice that focuses on improving weaknesses and pushing oneself out of one’s comfort zone. b. Practice that focuses on maintaining strengths and staying within one’s comfort zone. c. Practice that focuses on achieving a specific goal or outcome. d. Practice that focuses on repetition and memorization of information.

Answer 121

a. Deliberate practice is practice that focuses on improving weaknesses and pushing oneself out of one’s comfort zone. It involves setting specific goals, breaking down tasks into smaller components, and receiving feedback on performance in order to continuously improve

Question 122

What is the reality of chess player’s exceptional memory?

Answer 122

Patterns that are recognised are meaningful, that is, it is mentally represented

Question 123

What is the “gold standard” for measuring expertise?

Answer 123

The gold standard for measuring expertise is performance in real-world situations, rather than in controlled laboratory settings.

Question 124

What is deliberate practice?

Answer 124

Deliberate practice is a purposeful and structured practice that focuses on improving specific aspects of performance, with the goal of achieving expert-level performance.

Question 125

True or false: Brain training does not enhance memory in the older population

Answer 125

False, it does enhance memory in the older population

Question 126

What are some of the limitations Daniel J. Simons found of the RCTs of brain training games?

Answer 126

They used small and non-representative samples, they had inadequate control groups, and they nitpicked and selectively reported outcomes

Question 127

What is Brain Training?

Answer 127

Training a series of regular mental activities designed to improve cognitive abilities

Question 128

What are the challenges in the development of artificial intelligence?

Answer 128

The development of artificial intelligence has challenges in data privacy and security, ethics and law.

Question 129

True or false? Mental representations are only the result of learning a skill, they cannot help us learn new information.

Answer 129

FALSE

Question 130

What does ‘domain specific’ mean?

Answer 130

‘Domain specific’ means mental representations only apply to the skill for which they were developed.

Question 131

True or false: Experts rely solely on rote memorization to recall information.

Answer 131

FALSE. Experts use mental representations to organize information, making it easier to retrieve and apply.

Question 132

How do experts remember patterns better as compared to everyone else?

Answer 132

They have preexisting patterns of information held in their long-term memory that can be used to respond effectively and quickly in certain types of situations.

Question 133

What were the results of Daniel J. Simon’s systematic review of brain training programs?

Answer 133

Practice and learning often resulted in better outcomes in the brain training programs, with narrow to limited transfer of cognitive benefits. There was no objective real world improvements, they did not stave off cognitive aging, and many had inaccurate marketing

Question 134

What technique did chess grandmaster Patrick Wolff say he used to try and remeber the position of the chess pieces in the first set-up he was presented with (the set up that mimicked a typical game set-up)?

Answer 134

Chunking.

Question 135

What is a mental representation?

Answer 135

A mental structure that corresponds to an object, idea, collection of information, or anything else, concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about.

Question 136

Why is feedback important in the learning process?

Answer 136

It can help individuals to identify and correct errors in their mental representations, leading to more accurate and effective performance.

Question 137

According to the video “Do brain training games work?” by Daniel Simons, what did he report were common shortcomings of the RCT’s included as evidence for braining trainings effectiveness?

Answer 137

1. Small or non-representative samples 2. Inadequate control group 3. Selective reporting of outcomes 4. Missing of critical tests 5. Opaque publishing practices

Question 138

What is the gold standard of practice, as discussed by Ericsson and Pool?

Answer 138

he gold standard of practice, also known as deliberate practice, is a highly structured approach to skill development that involves setting specific goals, obtaining immediate feedback, and repetitively practicing to address weaknesses and refine performance. This focused, systematic practice is considered the most effective way to achieve expertise in a particular field.

Question 139

Why might a researcher selectively report outcomes in an RCT?

Answer 139

Selective reporting of outcomes means that a researcher will only choose to include variables and results that are interesting, positive or confirm their hypotheses. This benefits the researcher in getting published and being known for more “interesting” studies.

Question 140

What is the role of mental representations in developing expertise?

Answer 140

Mental representations play a crucial role in developing expertise by helping us understand and process information. Experts have a more extensive and well-developed set of mental representations than non-experts.

Question 141

What is the “Gold Standard” of expertise? a. Reaching a level of proficiency that is unmatched by anyone else in the field. b. Consistently achieving peak performance in a specific task or activity. c. Demonstrating a deep understanding of the principles and concepts underlying a field or domain. d. Being recognized by others in the field as a leader or expert

Answer 141

c. The “Gold Standard” of expertise is demonstrating a deep understanding of the principles and concepts underlying a field or domain. It involves being able to think critically, solve problems creatively, and make connections between different pieces of information in order to develop a comprehensive understanding of the domain

Question 142

In the mental representations in learning, what were the benefits of having a mental representation when playing an instrument?

Answer 142

It allowed for less mistakes, the mental representation that the saxophone player allowed both to know it sounded wrong but the fingering also felt wrong. It also allows for more suitable practicing techniques and self monitoring as they practiced and mistake finding.

Question 143

One brain training study claimed that training reduced at-fault crash rates by 50%. What’s wrong with this claim?

Answer 143

It neglects to mention the effect in the context of total crash rates (i.e., including not-at-fault crashes), which obscures that the effect may not actually prevent you crashing more often.

Question 144

What is the EAST Framework and how can it be used in nudging?

Answer 144

The EAST Framework is a behavioral science framework that stands for Easy, Attractive, Social, and Timely. It can be used in nudging to design interventions that make desirable behaviors easy to do, visually appealing, socially normative, and timely to implement.

Question 145

What is the role of feedback in deliberate practice?

Answer 145

Feedback is a crucial component of deliberate practice as it helps individuals to identify their weaknesses and adjust their approach accordingly. Through feedback, individuals can refine their mental representations and improve their performance.

Question 146

What was the general advice Daniel gave at the end when looking at studies

Answer 146

Instead of looking at the volume of studies being done, we need to scrutinise and critically analyse each of them, their methods, analysis and results.

Question 147

what is a “domain specific” mental representation?

Answer 147

a mental representation that is only applied to the skill that it was developed for

Question 148

Describe a characteristic of deliberate practices?

Answer 148

Deliberate practices involve feedback and modification of efforts in response to the feedback

Question 149

These are some of the main issues in the research on evidence around brain training programs, except … a. Non-representative samples; b. Inadequate control groups; c. Usage of random assignment; d. Selective reporting of outcomes

Answer 149

c. Usage of random assignment

Question 150

Narrow Transfer

Answer 150

If you practice one working memory task you might get better at that same task with slightly different materials or at very closely related tasks

Question 151

What is the role of deliberate practice in expertise?

Answer 151

Deliberate practice is essential for developing expertise, as it involves focusing on specific areas of weakness and working to improve them over time.

Question 152

A person’s predisposition to solve a given problem in a specific manner even though better or more appropriate methods of solving the problem exist. When presented with a problem, experts can often be lured into engaging in nonopti­mal but familiar solutions instead of novel, more efficient solutions. Leads tp a negative effect of previous experience when solving new problems.

Answer 152

Einstellung effect

Question 153

explain how planning plays an important part in forming mental representations.

Answer 153

planning can help create more accurate mental representations, which can help individuals consider all the variables of embarking on a task.

Question 154

What is the core promise of brain training programs?

Answer 154

The core promise of brain training programs is that by improving an underlying cognitive capacity, such as working memory, anything that relies on that skill in principle could be improved.

Question 155

Give one example of an issue that the authors of “Peak” raise with Malcolm Gladwell’s number of 10,000 hours for mastery of a skill.

Answer 155

’- The number of 10,000 is inaccurate and was seemingly chosen for aesthetic reasons. - The Number varies from field to field. - Does not distinguish between deliberate practice and other activities that might be considered “practice” (see performing) - 10,000 hours does not guarantee mastery in a field (not explicitly mentioned by Gladwell but interpreted by many to mean this)

Question 156

In the video “Memory for chess positions,” grandmaster Patrick Wolff demonstrates his ability to recall a complex chess position after seeing it for only a few __________.

Answer 156

Seconds

Question 157

True or false: According to Daniel Simons, ‘Brain Training’ programs not only improve performance on specific tasks, but this also translates into overall cognitive improvement and general intelligence.

Answer 157

False - The brain training programs may improve performance on specific tasks, but they do not necessarily translate into overall cognitive improvement or general intelligence.

Question 158

True or False: Studies promoting brain training programs often suffer from methodological issues such as small sample sizes and lack of control groups.

Answer 158

True. Many studies promoting brain training programs suffer from methodological issues that can undermine their validity, such as small sample sizes and lack of control groups.

Question 159

Determining true or false: In remembering the positions of randomly arranged pieces on the board (arrangements without any chess meaning), chess masters perform significantly better than novices.

Answer 159

False. The advantage of experienced players is reflected in the correlated board memory, i.e. when the pieces on the board are arranged in a real chess game pattern, chess masters can quickly remember and recover most of the pieces (two thirds of the pieces after five seconds of learning), while novices can only remember about a quarter of the pieces.

Question 160

The main scientific evidence used by companies to back up brain training programs is…

Answer 160

Neuroplasticity

Question 161

When Wolf made an error in the replication of a chess play, was it a critical error that would have affected the game or was it an error with a piece that would not have affected the outcome of the game?

Answer 161

His errors were small, with unimportant pieces that would not have affected the change.

Question 162

(True/False) deliberate practices produces but does not depends on effective mental representations

Answer 162

FALSE

Question 163

What was the key difference found that separated the good, better and best violinists? This was mirrored in ballet dancers.

Answer 163

The best performers had spent more time on average practicing throughout their life than the better performers, and the better had spent more time practicing than the good.

Question 164

What is chunking in the context of memory for chess positions?

Answer 164

Grouping pieces of information together to facilitate encoding and retrieval.

Question 165

There has been quite a bit of research into the representations people use when writing, and the research has demonstrated a profound difference between the methods used by expert writers and those used by novices. For example, the answer that a sixth-grader offered when asked about the strategy he used in writing an essay is completely another way.This phenomenon is an example of which topic? A,Planning B,Making sense of information C,Finding an answer

Answer 165

A,Planning

Question 166

How does domain specific mental representations relate to expert performance

Answer 166

There is no such thing as developing a general skill (for example, you cannot train to be a general athlete but you would train for a specific sport)

Question 167

What were the short comings of the papers and studies written about the benefits of braining training, highlighted in the “does braining training work” video.

Answer 167

Small samples Inadequate control group Selective reporting of outcomes Missing critical tests Opaque publishing practices

Question 168

True or False: To date there is no evidence that brain training programs have a significant effect on learning and transfer broadly

Answer 168

True: After complying a systematic review of over a hundred studies, the authors of “Do ‘Brain Training’ Programs Work?” concluded the evidence was inconclusive/non-sufficient

Question 169

What was the consensus on the brain training industry from the scientific community?

Answer 169

That there was little evidence to suggest that playing brain games improves underlying broad cognitive abilities, or that it enables one to better navigate a complex realm of everyday life.

Question 170

True or False, Mental representations are formed through random practice.

Answer 170

FALSE

Question 171

In Simons et al. (2016), did the researchers find that brain training games could lead to broad transfer?

Answer 171

No, the researchers essentially found no evidence for objective improvements in real-world measures of behaviour / outcomes.

Question 172

How can mental representations be used to improve performance in fields such as music or athletics? A) By allowing individuals to visualize and mentally rehearse complex movements or sequences of actions B) By providing a way to break down complex tasks into smaller, more manageable parts C) By creating a mental map of the task or domain being learned D) All of the above

Answer 172

D) All of the above

Question 173

What is the historical parallel that can be drawn with the brain training industry?

Answer 173

The historical parallel that can be drawn with the brain training industry is the heyday of the patent medicine era, where cures were not regulated in any form, and a simple thing or magic bullet could help people with all sorts of diseases. The appeal of a magic bullet parallels the idea that brain training programs can take one thing and have it improve all sorts of other things.

Question 174

When testing soccer player’s ability to predict what’s coming next on a soccer field, what was discovered in Erricson and Pool’s book (Peak: Secrets from the new science of expertise, Chapter 3)?

Answer 174

It was discovered that better soccer players had a more highly-developed ability to interpret patterns.

Question 175

True or False Physical activity is not related to mental representations and cognitive capacity

Answer 175

False Physical activity requires mental representation to be carried out

Question 176

What did the results of a systematic review on brain training programs show? A) NO “narrow transfer” of knowledge, but evidence of “broad transfer”, B) evidence for “narrow transfer”, but NOT “broad transfer”, C) Evidence of both; narrow AND broad transfer.

Answer 176

B) narrow transfer, but not broad transfer of knowledge was evident in the results of the review.

Question 177

What are some of the common shortcomings of RCTs cited as evidence supporting brain training?

Answer 177

They commonly have: Small samples Samples that have certain mental conditions and don’t represent the general population Inadequate control group, not matched Selective reporting of outcomes

Question 178

What is a mental representation?

Answer 178

A mental structure that is similar to that of an object or something that can be concrete or abstract that is being thought about by the brain. Eg visual image.

Question 179

True or false?: Does Brain training help you academically, socially, and professionally?

Answer 179

TRUE

Question 180

True or False. Mental representations are innate abilities that individuals are born with.

Answer 180

False. Mental representations are developed over time through years of practice and experience in a particular domain.

Question 181

In what ways does deliberate practice aid in performance on representative tasks that capture the essence of expertise in a particular domain?

Answer 181

Deliberate practice are activities with the specific aim of improving current levels of performance. Superior performers do not automate rele­vant aspects of their performance and strive to increase their control of it. This control, or rather the ability to monitor and adapt their per­formance, derives directly from deliberate practice activities that focus on improvement that continuously push them out ­of their comfort zone.

Question 182

True or False - Purposeful practise is another term for deliberate practise.

Answer 182

False. Deliberate practise is different from purposeful practise in that it is also INFORMED.

Question 183

True or False: The book “Peak: Secrets from the New Science of Expertise” argues that deliberate practice is essential to developing expertise in any domain.

Answer 183

True. The book argues that deliberate practice, which involves setting specific goals, receiving feedback, and making constant adjustments, is essential to developing expertise in any domain. The authors use examples from a variety of fields, such as music, sports, and chess, to demonstrate how deliberate practice can help individuals reach expert-level performance.

Question 184

According to “Peak: Secrets from the New Science of Expertise,” what traits characterise deliberate practice? a) Setting vague and general goals b) Practicing only in areas of expertise c) Avoiding feedback and self-evaluation d) Involves feedback and modification of efforts in response to that feedback

Answer 184

Answer: d) Involves feedback and modification of efforts in response to that feedback

Question 185

Finish this sentence: A key factor on the success of distinguishing chess piece positions when the board is randomised or not is…

Answer 185

Mental representations.

Question 186

Steve Faloon developed increasingly complicated methods to mentally encode long sequences of digits while training to increase his capacity to remember long strings of digits.That’s the process of creating________.

Answer 186

mental representations

Question 187

True or False, Deliberate practice involves a focus on specific aspects of performance, immediate feedback, and the setting of challenging goals.

Answer 187

TRUE

Question 188

What are mental representations?

Answer 188

Mental representations are internal models that experts use to organize, understand, and solve problems in their domain.

Question 189

The hierarchical structure of chunks are analogous to…?

Answer 189

Business organisation structures. Individuals are organised into teams, which are organised into units, into departments, and so on

Question 190

During the memory test for chess positions featuring Patrick Wolff, how accurate were Wolff’s reconstructions of the chess cards he was shown?

Answer 190

Wolff’s memory was nearly perfect, where his rare errors were mostly on pieces that were unimportant for what was happening in the game.

Question 191

Is there strong scientific evidence supporting brain training programs?

Answer 191

The talk discusses how there is limited scientific evidence supporting brain training programs.

Question 192

Explain in brief detail the idea of mental representation that is “domain specific”?

Answer 192

Mental representation is “domain specific” as they apply only to the skill for which they were developed. In other words, the mental representations that individuals develop are often tied to the specific skills that they have expertise in. These representations are optimized for the specific demands of those domains and may not be applicable to use in other domains. For instance, the mental representations that divers had will be useless for basketball.

Question 193

What are mental representations?

Answer 193

Cognitive structures that individuals develop to understand and process information in a particular domain.

Question 194

True or False: Dan Simons’ talk suggests that brain training programs are often overhyped and lack evidence to support their claims.

Answer 194

True. In his talk, Dan Simons critically evaluates various studies on brain training programs and concludes that their benefits are often overstated. He argues that there is little evidence to support the claims made by brain training programs, and urges people to be cautious of their promises.

Question 195

What are the seven traits that characterize deliberate practice as outlined by Ericsson & Pool?

Answer 195

Deliberate practice (1) develops new skills, (2) takes place outside of one’s comfort zone, (3) involves well-defined and specific goals, (4) requires one’s full attention, (5) involves feedback and modification, (6) produces and depends on effective mental representations, (7) and nearly always involves building or modifying previously acquired skills.

Question 196

How can expert performance be measured?

Answer 196

This can be measured through accuracy, efficiency, consistency of results and quality/competence

Question 197

Do brain training programs work for narrow transfer?

Answer 197

Yes - there is evidence that indicates that when you train in a task you will get better in that task or something very similar to it.

Question 198

In the speech/talk given by Daniel J Simons “Do brain training programs work?”, why is brain training considered the holy grail of training?

Answer 198

By practising improving an underlying cognitive capacity that applies to a range of different settings, anything that relies on that setting therefore can be improved

Question 199

Why was the claim of an additional 22 feet of stopping distance in the driving simulation dubious?

Answer 199

Because the authors assumed that an improvement of 277 ms reaction time on a computer would directly translate into the real world. This contrasts with other evidence which suggests that reaction time is unrelated to stopping time in older adults as they keep larger distances between themselves and the cars ahead regardless.

Question 200

_______refers to the internal cognitive structures that individuals use to represent and process information about a domain, such as chess or music.

Answer 200

Mental representations

Question 201

What is the “Gold Standard” method of deliberate practice? A) Repeating a task over and over until it becomes second nature B) Working with a coach or mentor who provides feedback and guidance C) Focusing on areas of weakness or difficulty in order to improve overall performance D) The skills required in these fields are primarily physical, rather than mental

Answer 201

D) The skills required in these fields are primarily physical, rather than mental

Question 202

Fill in the blank: Mental representations are built through _____ and _____.

Answer 202

Experience and Practice. Mental representations are built through experience and practice.

Question 203

Will artificial intelligence replace human work?

Answer 203

Artificial intelligence will replace human work to a certain extent, but it will also create new jobs.

Question 204

n chapter 3 of “Peak: Secrets from the new science of expertise,” the authors discuss the importance of mental representations in developing expertise. Can you explain the concept of mental representations and provide examples of how they are used in various domains, such as sports or music?

Answer 204

Mental representations are mental models or frameworks of information that people develop as they learn and practice a particular skill or domain. They allow individuals to organize information in a meaningful way, making it easier to recall and use when needed. In sports, mental representations might include visualizing a specific shot or move, while in music, they might involve hearing a melody in one’s head before playing it on an instrument. Mental representations are essential for developing expertise because they allow individuals to process and interpret information quickly and accurately, leading to more efficient and effective performance.

Question 205

What is the most important predictor in chess player ability? a) whether their parents were good at chess b) the amount of hours they have spent playing chess with others c) the time spent analysing the chess games of experts d) their IQ

Answer 205

c) the time spent analysing the chess games of experts

Question 206

How well did Patrick Wolff, a grandmaster chess player, perform at recalling a random arrangement of chess pieces on a chessboard?

Answer 206

Wolff’s expertise was of little help when pieces placed on the board randomly.

Question 207

Feng’s method of encoding digits is based on some of the well-known techniques, such as the __________ palace.

Answer 207

Answer: Memory

Question 208

What is the impact of increasing understanding on information aquisition?

Answer 208

An increase in understanding of the subject in question will improve the ease at which new information can be aquired and retained

Question 209

In “Peak: Secrets from the new science of expertise,” the authors argue that the gold standard for measuring expertise is performance in real-world contexts. How do they define real-world performance, and what are some of the challenges associated with using this approach to assess expertise?

Answer 209

According to the authors, real-world performance is the gold standard for measuring expertise because it reflects an individual’s ability to perform in a specific context, under real-world conditions. This approach is more reliable and valid than using standardized tests or other forms of assessment because it provides a more accurate measure of an individual’s skills and knowledge. However, there are challenges associated with using this approach, such as the variability of real-world contexts and the difficulty of controlling for external factors that may impact performance. Additionally, real-world performance may not be feasible or ethical to measure in certain domains, such as medicine or law.

Question 210

True or false? Expert chess players can recall random placement of chess pieces on a board far better than novices.

Answer 210

False. Expert chess players can recall non-random placement of chess pieces (i.e. when the pieces represent game play) on a board far better than novices.

Question 211

Q: According to Ericsson and Pool, what is the gold standard of expertise? A) Natural talent B) Innate ability C) High intelligence D) Deliberate practice

Answer 211

D) Deliberate practice

Question 212

What a possible alternative for the headline “Training reduced at fault crashed by 50%.” and what does it show

Answer 212

“Speed training more than doubles your risk of at-fault accidents.” and Noice Mining

Question 213

What is the “gold standard” for measuring expertise?

Answer 213

The “gold standard” is for measuring expertise in expert performance by comparing an individual’s performance to that of a expert in the field or domain

Question 214

True or False: The more you study a subject, the less likely you are to assimilate new information about it.

Answer 214

Answer: False. The given information states that the more you study a subject, the more detailed your mental representations of it become, and the better you get at assimilating new information.

Question 215

Explain why Patrick Wolff was so easily able to memorize positions taken from real chess games.

Answer 215

Because, to him, the board make logical sense, mistakes he made placing pieces were unimportant to the overall position.

Question 216

True or False: Brain training programs have consistently demonstrated long-term cognitive improvements.

Answer 216

False

Question 217

T/F Deliberate practice is the same as regular practice.

Answer 217

Answer: False. Explanation: In Chapter 4 of “Peak,” the authors distinguish between deliberate practice and regular practice. Deliberate practice is a specific type of practice focused on improving performance through well-defined goals, immediate feedback, and continuous refinement of techniques. It involves stepping out of one’s comfort zone and working on areas of weakness. Regular practice, on the other hand, may involve repeating a skill without a clear focus on improvement or incorporating feedback. Deliberate practice is considered the “gold standard” for developing expertise.

Question 218

True or False: The systematic review ‘Do “Brain Training” Programs Work?’ found evidence of broad transfer.

Answer 218

False: There was no evidence of broad transfer. There was only evidence of narrow transfer, meaning if someone practiced a memory task they would only get better at similar memory tasks and this improvement would not transfer to other tasks e.g., speeded processing

Question 219

True or false. Brain training exercises have been proven to generalize to improving cognition in everyday life

Answer 219

FALSE

Question 220

TRUE/FALSE In their study of deliberate practice in violin students, Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer found that some students were more motivated to engage in solitary practice because they derived satisfaction and enjoyment from it.

Answer 220

FALSE: They found that although all students identified solitary practice as vital for improvement, they all viewed it as labor-intensive and not much fun. They were motivated to practice intensely because they understood that practice was essential improving performance.

Question 221

What is meant by domain specific in terms of mental representation?

Answer 221

That they apply only for the skill that there were developed for. Examples given were such as you can train to remember a string of letter but this doers not make you better at remembering any/all strings of letters.

Question 222

True or false? The systematic review of studies on brain-training by Dan Simons and colleagues found that practice led to improvement on certain tasks

Answer 222

True. Practice on brain-training tasks showed an improvement on doing those tasks or very similar tasks.

Question 223

What is the core idea of brain training?

Answer 223

By practising one thing, you can get better at lots of other things.

Question 224

True or False: Brain training has been shown to improve broad transfer.

Answer 224

False. Brain training may improve narrow transfer, which is when the skills of a brain training task transfer to another game that varies very slightly. Improvements in brain training cannot claim to transfer to broad real-world cognitive tasks.

Question 225

What are the patterns recognised by grandmasters known as?

Answer 225

Chunk

Question 226

What is the gold standard of expertise?

Answer 226

The gold standard of expertise is the ability to consistently perform at an elite level over time.

Question 227

T/F Mental representations can be improved through deliberate practice.

Answer 227

Answer: True. Explanation: In Chapters 3 and 4 of “Peak,” Ericsson and Pool discuss the importance of mental representations and how they can be improved through deliberate practice. As individuals engage in deliberate practice, they refine and expand their mental representations, which in turn allows them to process and interpret information more efficiently. This improvement in mental representations enables individuals to perform better in their domain of expertise and continue to develop their skills.

Question 228

What type of representation would replying on photographic memory be?

Answer 228

bottom-level representation

Question 229

What is the “gold standard” described in Chapter 4 of “Peak?” A) The highest level of expertise in a particular skill or domain B) The most effective method of training for skill acquisition C) The ideal measure of skill mastery and proficiency D) The best way to achieve peak performance in any field

Answer 229

C) The ideal measure of skill mastery and proficiency

Question 230

True or False? Grandmaster chess players are able to retain more of the pieces’ positions than a novice when seeing them for a few seconds, even if the pieces are arranged in a random way that doesn’t respect the rules of playing.

Answer 230

False. They did just as bad as the novice and the intermediate players because in that case they are unable to make sense of the chessboard, i.e. to link their immediate perception to any of the hundreds of thousands of patterns (or mental representations) they have memorized through deliberate practice.

Question 231

What is the application prospect of artificial intelligence in the future?

Answer 231

Artificial intelligence has a wide range of application prospects in the future, including autonomous driving, smart home, medical diagnosis, intelligent customer service and other fields.

Question 232

True or false. In the ‘Memory for Chess Positions’ video, grandmaster Patrick Wolff could recall both real and random chess positions.

Answer 232

False! Although grandmaster Patrick Wolff could recall real chess positions nearly perfectly, they could not recall random positions.

Question 233

The “gold standard” for expertise is a measure of performance in a specific domain that is both objective and __________.

Answer 233

The “gold standard” for expertise is a measure of performance in a specific domain that is both objective and reliable.

Question 234

What is transfer, and why is it important in the development of expertise? A) Transfer refers to the ability to apply skills and knowledge learned in one context to another context B) Transfer is not important in the development of expertise C) Transfer is the process of breaking down complex tasks into smaller parts D) Transfer is the ability to memorize and recall large amounts of information quickly

Answer 234

A) Transfer refers to the ability to apply skills and knowledge learned in one context to another context

Question 235

Explain what is meant by being “domain specific”

Answer 235

When mental representations only apply to the skill for which they were developed

Question 236

A key factor of deliberate practice that distinguishes it from other forms of purposeful practice is that it is both purposeful and ____

Answer 236

informed. In particular, deliberate practice is informed and guided by the best performers’ accomplishments and their understanding of what is needed to excel.

Question 237

What were the shortcomings of the papers utilised by the brain training programs?

Answer 237

’- Small or non-representative samples - Inadequate control groups - Selective reporting of outcomes leading to publication bias - Opaque publishing practices

Question 238

___ is a mental structure that corresponds to an object, an idea, a collection of information, or anything else, concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about.

Answer 238

Mental representations

Question 239

Explain what is a Mental Representation?

Answer 239

A mental structure that corresponds to an object, idea, collection of information or anything else, concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about for example a visual image that someone ‘sees’ when a topic such as the Eiffel Tower is mentioned.

Question 240

What is the difference between remembering a chess position that could arise from a real game versus a randomly generated position, and how do chess experts approach each of these tasks?

Answer 240

Chess experts perform better at remembering chess positions that could arise from a real game because they can quickly recognize familiar patterns and structures in the position. They may struggle with randomly generated positions because they don’t conform to typical patterns and require more cognitive effort to encode and recall.

Question 241

What are mental representations in the context of skills?

Answer 241

Mental representations are an individual’s internal model of how to preform a skill, these are formed over years of deliberate practice.

Question 242

Fill in the blank: Chessmaster Patrick Wolff struggled to recall chess positions when the position was __________

Answer 242

Randomised. Wolff struggled to recall random positions because they had no relevance to a winning position.

Question 243

True or False. Mental representations are the same for all experts in a particular domain.

Answer 243

False. Mental representations are tailored to an individual’s specific area of expertise and can differ significantly between experts in the same domain.

Question 244

True or False: Deliberate practice refers to a type of focused and structured training that involves systematically improving specific aspects of one’s performance through feedback, repetition, and problem-solving.

Answer 244

TRUE

Question 245

What are the two ways in which deliberate practice is different from purposeful practice?

Answer 245

The two ways are (1) Deliberate practice requires a field that is already well-developed, and (2) It requires a teacher to help students improve their performance

Question 246

What is a mental representation?

Answer 246

A mental representation is a mental structure that corresponds to an object, an idea, a collection of information, or anything else, concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about.

Question 247

True/False Brain-training claims assume that practice only improves performance on the practiced tasks.

Answer 247

FALSE

Question 248

What is mental representation?

Answer 248

A mental representation is a mental model or image that an individual creates in their mind to understand and navigate a particular domain or skill.

Question 249

The way that grandmasters of chess process and make sense of chess positions is an example of m—– r————–

Answer 249

mental representations

Question 250

Fill in the missing words - In the context of brain training programs, (BLANK) refers to the improvement in cognitive abilities beyond the specific tasks practiced within the program.

Answer 250

transfer

Question 251

what is Horner’s syndrome cased by

Answer 251

it is caused by damage to a nerve that runs behind the eye

Question 252

Results of the systematic review showed that: A – Stave off cognitive aging B – Broad Transfer C – Objective real-world improvements D – Learning effects

Answer 252

Answer D – Learning effects

Question 253

What are mental representations?

Answer 253

Mental Representations are mental structures that corresponds to an object, idea, collection of information, or anything else concrete or abstract, that the brain is thinking about.

Question 254

True or False - expertise can be developed by talent alone, people without natural talent have limitations in achieving it.

Answer 254

False though deliberate practice, individuals can overcome natural talent limitations and achieve expertise.

Question 255

What is the “chunking” technique, and how does it relate to the development of expertise?

Answer 255

Chunking is a memory technique that involves grouping information into meaningful patterns, or “chunks,” which can then be stored and retrieved more easily. This technique is used by experts in various domains to increase the amount of information they can hold in their working memory.