Class 4: Thinking fast and slow Flashcards
This class focuses on the topics of dual-process theories of higher cognition and the conditions for intuitive expertise. These theories explore how our minds process information and make decisions using two distinct systems.
True or False: According to the study of Kahneman and Klein, expert intuition is the result of various experience and complex heuristics and biases, while novice intuition is based on limited experience and relies on simple heuristics and biases.
False. Expert intuition is the result of extensive experience and practice in a particular domain, while novice intuition is based on limited experience and relies on simple heuristics and biases.
According to Daniel Kahneman, how does System 1 generate answers to difficult questions?
To answer difficult questions, we substitute the difficult question for a related question that is easy to answer. For example, when deciding how much to pay for insurance we base our answer on how afraid we are.
Out of the tasks below, which is NOT an example of a Type 2 process: 1. Solving a complex math problem 2. Resisting temptation 3. Recognising a familiar face
Answer: Option 3 (recognising a familiar face) Reasoning: - When we see a familiar face (option 3), we typically recognise it automatically, without much conscious effort. Although facial recognition can involve some cognitive processes such as attention and perception, it does not typically require deliberate, effortful mental processes like those involved in Type 2 thinking. - Contrastingly, solving a complex math problem (option 1) requires deliberate, effortful mental processes that involve reflective reasoning, working memory, and executive functions. - Similarly, resisting temptation (option 2) also involves deliberate, conscious mental processes that override automatic, impulsive responses.
What is the perspective of Daniel Kahneman and Gary Klein on the role of intuition in decision-making, and how does this relate to the need for analysis and reflection?
Daniel Kahneman and Gary Klein argue that intuition plays a critical role in decision-making, particularly in complex and ambiguous situations where it can be difficult to use analytical methods. However, intuition can also be influenced by cognitive biases, and is more effective when it is informed by experience and knowledge. Therefore, Kahneman and Klein suggest that intuition should be combined with analysis and reflection to improve decision-making outcomes
True or False: The most common method for defining expertise in HB (heuristics and biases) research is to rely on peer judgements.
FALSE: NDM research relies on peer judgement
Define Dual Types
Terminology that implies that the dual processes are qualitatively distinct. Type 1 processes are (broadly) intuitive and Type 2 processes reflective.
How does the Heuristics and Biases (HB) approach differ to the Naturalistic Decision Making (NDM) approach when it came to expert judgement?
The HB approach favors skepticism towards expertise and expert judgement, in contrast to the NDM approach of studying and learning from expert professionals.
How do dual-process theories relate to the concept of rationality?
Dual-process theories suggest that rationality involves balancing intuitive and reflective processes in order to make accurate judgments and decisions. Rationality requires not only the ability to use reflective processes effectively, but also the ability to recognize when and how to override intuitive processes that may lead to bias or error.
Relating to Daniel Kahneman - Two Systems in the Mind video: What mental operation system is used when automatic response is thought of when provided with a stimulus?
System 1 provides an automatic response to stimuli. For example, when I say the word vomit, most people would automatically think of the feeling disgust.
What are the two approaches to intuition and expertise discussed in the article by Daniel Kahneman & Gary Klein?
Heuristics and biases (HB) and naturalistic decision making
Define System 1 thinking and provide an example.
System 1 thinking is fast and automatic, and it happens without conscious effort. An example of System 1 thinking is when you automatically flinch or move your hand away from something hot or dangerous.
Human thinking involves two distinct systems: System 1: a fast, intuitive, and automatic system. System 2: a slower, more deliberative, and effortful system. Judging whether it is right or wrong.
It is right. Reference: Dual-process theories of higher cognition: Advancing the debate. Perspectives on Psychological Science
According to Kahneman and Klein’s (2009) article, what two conditions must be satisfied to develop skilled intuition?
1) an environment that is sufficiently regular to be predictable, and 2) an opportunity to learn these regularities through prolonged practice and feedback. In other words, to develop skilled intuition, individuals must have exposure to a consistent and reliable environment, and they must engage in deliberate practice and receive feedback over an extended period of time.
Fill in the Blanks - ___________ processing is defined by its minimal demand on ___________ resources and tends to be rapid in nature.
Type 1; working memory
True or False: Skilled judges are aware of the cues and biases that guide them.
False, Skilled judges are UNAWARE of the cues and biases that guide them
Can we fully trust the intuition of experts/professionals?
No, although they are highly experienced in their fields, they can still have inappropriate applications of the heuristic processes.
True or False: While doing type 2 thinking, you typically cannot carry out something else that is demanding of attention.
True. Attention is needed to perform type 2 thinking, and you have little attention left to perform other tasks.
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of System 2 thinking: a) slow b) deliberate c) automatic d) effortful
d) automatic
What can happen to individuals who make successful judgments and decisions by chance?
They may become susceptible to an illusion of skill and overconfidence.
Define Cognitive Reflection
The ability to recognize and override automatic or intuitive responses generated by System 1 in favor of more reflective and deliberate responses generated in System 2
What two conditions must be satisfied for intuitive judgement to have occurred, under the recognition model?
First, the environment must provide adequate cues to the nature of a given situation, and then, people must have the opportunity to learn relevant cues.
T or F: the most effective cognitive strategies are analytical.
F, the most effective cognitive strategies involve a balance between intuitive and analytical processes.
What is the distinction between two kinds of thinking
one fast and intuitive and the other slow and delibrative.
Two conditions must be satisfied for skilled intuition to develop. These two conditions are?
1: An environment of sufficiently high validity. 2: Adequate opportunity to practice the skill.
Can intuition be used in all types of decision-making?
Intuition can be useful in many types of decision-making, but it may not be appropriate in situations that require a high level of precision or analysis.
How does Kahneman explain how System 1 can generate answers to impossible questions?
By substituting easy questions to answer hard ones, where heuristics of judgement are employed often automatically.
Name the different state of minds in Stanovich’s tripartite model of mind and which process they belong in.
Type 2 - Reflective Mind (individual differences in rational thinking) Type 2 - Algorithmic Mind (individual differences in fluid intelligence) Type 1 - Autonomous Mind (few individual differences)
What is the difference between System 1 thinking and System 2 thinking?
System 1: fast, intuitive, biased, and automatic System 2: slow, deliberate, abstract, and requires a certain amount of effort
true/false - cognitive resources can’t be depleted as they are not physical resources
false - cognitive resources can be reduced or depleted through effortful processing (system 2)
According to Khaneman, which system do individuals activate when they use mental shortcuts (heuristics) to make decisions?
System 1
True or False. A true dual-process theory that distinguishes two types of process will imply the engagement of distinct cognitive and neurological systems
FALSE
How are chess grand masters able to rapidly identify the most promising moves in chess?
Chess grand masters are able to recognise complex patterns. Grand masters know approximately 50,000 to 100,000 recognisable patterns that allow them to identify good moves without having to calculate all possible outcomes.
What is the difference between Type 1 and Type 2 processing?
Type 1 processing refers to intuitive processes that are automatic and unconscious, while Type 2 processing refers to reflective processes that are deliberate and conscious.
According to Jonathan Evans, what did he emphasised in the definition of Type 2 processing?
It is slow, sequential, and correlated with measures of general intelligence and also suggested that Type 2 thinking enables uniquely human facilities.
Kahneman and Klein argue that expert intuition is often more reliable than analytical thinking in certain domains. What are some of the domains in which expert intuition is particularly useful?
The authors suggest that expert intuition is particularly useful in domains that involve well-structured problems with clear rules and immediate feedback, such as firefighting, chess, and medical diagnosis. In these domains, expert intuition can often lead to faster and more accurate decision-making than analytical thinking.
According to Daniel Kahneman’s video “Two systems in the mind”, what are the two ways of thinking?
Intuition and Computation/reasoning
True/False: In the RPD model, the performance of experts in-volves only an automatic process that brings promising solutions to mind.
FALSE
True or False: Dual-process theories suggest that there are two correlative systems involved in cognitive processing: an automatic, slow, and conscious system (System 1) and an unconscious, fast, and effortful system (System 2).
False Dual-process theories suggest that there are two separate systems involved in cognitive processing: a fast, automatic, and unconscious system (System 1) and a slower, conscious, and effortful system (System 2).
Describe the concept of loss aversion as described by Kahneman and explain how loss aversion could be overcome when it might influence decision making?
Loss aversion is the tendency to be more motivated to avoid losses than to achieve gains. To overcome loss aversion, it can be helpful to focus on the potential gains of a decision, rather than the potential losses.
What are the two conditions that must be fulfilled for intuitive judgement to be classified as ‘genuinely skilled’?
- The environment must provide valid cues to the nature of the situation. 2. People must have had the opportunity to learn the relevant cues
In the language of the dual-process models, which system creates intuitive judgments?
System 1 operations: automatic, quick, unconscious, and almost effortless.
What is the fundamental difference between the naturalistic decision making and heuristic bias approaches to expert judgment?
The Naturalistic decision making approach focuses on the marvels of successful expert judgements, whereas a heuristic bias approach focuses more on the flaws in human cognitive performance.
Are heuristics intuitions always unreliable?
No, they can be useful but sometimes they are less trustworthy than intuitions that are rooted in specific experiences. It is important to consider the validity of the environment in which that judgement was made.
According to Stanovich how does the hierarchy system work within the tripartite model of the mind?
The TASS will implement the autonomous mind (Type 1 processing) unless overridden by the inhibitory mechanisms of the algorithmic mind (Type 2 processing) which holds individual differences in fluid intelligence/cognitive ability. This processing is however subordinate to the higher-level goal states and epistemic and rational thinking dispositions of the reflective mind (Type 2 processing).
What is a Duel-Process?
A theory that Cognitive Tasks evoke two forms of processing that contribute to observable behaviour.
According to David Kahneman, if going shopping would it be more beneficial to our overall memory of the items we need, to memorise our shopping list or to visualise the path we would need to take around the shop to get those items?
It is easier for our brains to remember the items if we visualise the path, as it is less abstract to us than purely remembering words.
True or False? Automaticity is a characteristic of type 2 thinking and effort and deliberate attention is characteristic of type 1 thinking.
False (other way around)
According to Kahneman what are the functions of System 1?
Executing skills, maintaining and updating world knowledge, generating coherent reactions and causal ‘stories’ in relation to stimuli, and finally substituting easy questions to answer hard ones utilising the heuristics of judgment.
Why is it important to recognize the limitations of intuition in decision-making?
Intuition can be biased and influenced by factors such as emotions and cognitive biases.
Define attribute substitution?
Attribute substitution is described as an automatic process of producing intuitive judgments, in which a difficult question is answered by substituting an easier one.
What is the Recognition-Primed Decision (RPD) model?
It provides a framework for understanding how experts (eg. firefighters) make quick decisions in real world context base on their past experiences and knowledge.
What did Goldberg’s 1970 study find about human judgment? (Kahneman & Klein, 2009)
When presented with the same information on separate occasions, humans often reach different conclusions.
What is the defining feature of Type 1 processing?
Autonomous processing
What is the main criticism of dual-process theories of higher cognition?
The main criticism of dual-process theories of higher cognition is that the distinction between System 1 and System 2 is oversimplified and that cognitive processes are more complex and interactive than the theory suggests.
In which criticism, Keren and Schul (2009) illustrated their argument: The different features of the cluster are not always observed together? A,Multiple and vague definitions are offered by various theorists; B,attribute clusters associated with dual systems do not consistently hold together; C,distinctions refer to a continuum of process- ing type rather than qualitatively distinct processes; D,single-process accounts can be offered for apparent dual-process phenomena; and E, the evidence base for dual-process theory is questionable.
B,attribute clusters associated with dual systems do not consistently hold together;
True or False: Perception has an element of prediction in it
True. For example, when you perceive an angry face, you also make predictions as to how the person would sound and behave.
True or false: Analytic or Type 2 processes are slow, controlled, effortful, rule-based, logical, and usually require working memory and attention.
TRUE
Fill in the blank: System 1 thinking is fast and _______________.
Automatic
What benefits does Alux mention from reading books?
Improved cognitive function, expanded vocabulary, increased empathy and emotional intelligence, and enhanced creativity.
True or false: Heuristic thinking (system 1 thinking) can always be controlled by the individual to such an extend that it does not affect the decision making process.
False, heuristics of judgment are often automatic and hence will at least have an implicit or subconscious impact on our decision making.
As explained by Daniel Kahneman, generating coherent reactions and casual stories is an important feature of which system in the mind
System 1
Fill in the blanks: Type 1 theories propose that cognitive processes are _____ (automatic/deliberate) and _____ (conscious/unconscious), while type 2 theories suggest that they are _____ (automatic/deliberate) and _____ (conscious/unconscious).
Type 1: automatic; unconscious Type 2: deliberate; conscious
Name two conditions for skilled intuition to develop.
adequate 1. high validity environment and 2. opportunity to practice the skill.
Sally is a maths student busily trying to work out a very difficult problem for her thesis. She has also been eating a lot more junk food. Daniel Kahneman would say this is because a) being busy makes you want to eat sugar b) during a busy period junk food packaging appears more salient or c) self-control decreases when you are expending a lot of mental effort elsewhere d) junk food manufacturers target busy people in their advertising
c
How can understanding the systems of thinking help us make better decisions?
Understanding the two systems of thinking can help us make better decisions by allowing us to recognise when we are relying too heavily on automatic, intuitive thinking (system 1) and when we need to engage in more deliberate, analytical thinking (system two).
According to David Kahneman, if we see a “10% fat” sign or a “90% fat-free” sign on packaged meat, and we see these signs on SEPERATE occasions, are we more likely to favour one of the signs over the other, and if so, which one?
Yes, more likely to favour “90% fat-free” sign as it requires less ‘effort’ for us to see the advantages
What is the difference between System 1 and System 2 in the context of intuition?
System 1 is an automatic, effortless, and involuntary process that produces intuitive judgments, while System 2 is a controlled, voluntary, and effortful process that involves deliberate activities and demands limited attentional resources.
What are the two kinds of thinking?
- Intuition, this is ‘fast’ thinking 2. Computational Reasoning, this is ‘slow’ thinking
Two conditions that need to be met for intuitive skills development are _______ and _______.
An environment of sufficiently high validity; adequate opportunity to practice the skill
True or False? According to Dual-Process Theories, System 1 is responsible for rational decision-making.
False. Dual-Process Theories propose that System 1 processes are often automatic and unconscious, and are responsible for quick, intuitive judgments. System 2 processes, on the other hand, are slower, more deliberate, and more conscious, and are used for more complex reasoning tasks. It is System 2 processes that are generally associated with rational decision-making.
What are the five criticisms of dual-process theories?
Multiple and vague definitions have been offered, attribute clusters associated with dual systems do not consistently hold together, continuum of processing style, single-process accounts may be offered for dual-process phenomena, and evidence base for dual-process theory is questionable.
How can intuition be improved, according to Kahneman and Klein?
Kahneman and Klein argue that intuition can be improved through experience and feedback.
What is the name of the decision-making model that the authors describe as being used by experts to make rapid decisions based on similar situations from memory?
The decision-making model described by the authors is the “recognition-primed” model.
What are dual-process theories of higher cognition?
Dual-process theories of higher cognition propose that there are two distinct modes of cognitive processing: an intuitive, automatic, and fast mode (often referred to as System 1), and a more deliberative, controlled, and slow mode (often referred to as System 2). These two modes of processing work in tandem to support human reasoning and decision making.
According to Table 1 of the article by Evans & Stanovichs, requires cognitive memory, cognitive decoupling, and mental stimulation are defining features of which process?
Type 2 process (reflective)
True/False? The dual-process theory proposes that there are 2 distinctive cognitive processing systems: type 1 and type 2.
True.
What is the Meehl paradigm, and why is it controversial?
The Meehl paradigm sets professional intuition against algorithms, and it’s controversial because algorithms are usually distrusted by the naturalistic decision-making community.
As stipulated by Kahneman & Klein (2009), what do critics of dual-process theories contend?
Critics dispute that there are two cognitive systems present, each with a cluster of defining attributes.
Describe Type 1 and Type 2 processing from the dual-processing theories (Evans and Stanovich, 2013)
Type 1 processing is automatic, intuitive, and fast, while Type 2 processing is deliberate, reflective, and slow
True or False: Self-control is impaired when we are engaged in effort in doing other things.
True. Eg. If you ask people to store 7 digits in memory and remember them, and then to perform another task while keeping those 7 digits in their head, they will make different choices and behave differently than they would if they didn’t hold 7 digits in their head. Given a choice between chocolate cake and fruit salad, they are more likely to choose chocolate cake if they have 7 digits in their head. EFFORT IMPAIRS SELF CONTROL. Self control is part of the limited resource system.
Were the eyes on the honesty box more effective than the images of flowers?
Yes, this is thought to be due to an unconscious effect of being watched and can operate without awareness. This is an example of an intuition we have in system 1, in comparison to system 2, as a consequence of the knowledge we have of the world.
Sally is an advertiser for Cadbury. How could Sally exploit buyers’ System 1 Processing to sell more Cadbury chocolate bars?
Sally could place chocolate bars at the register - when customers are going through the line, they may not have time for their System 2 Processing to kick in to evaluate whether the chocolate bar purchase is a smart choice. Additionally, with other stresses on their mind at the busy supermarket, customers may default to their System 1 processing.
What are the three major types of methods used to study dual-process theories?
The three major types of methods used to study dual-process theories are experimental manipulations, neural imaging, and the psychometric approach.
What are the two conditions that must be satisfied for skilled intuition to develop?
(1) an environment of sufficiently high validity and (2) adequate opportunities to practice the relevant skill.
True or false: Dual-process theories argues that individual differences in cognitive ability can impact the effectiveness of different cognitive processes.
TRUE
True or False. There are two two kinds of thinking, one is fast and intuitive, and the other is slow and uninformed
False. The other is slow and deliberative,
What is cognitive decoupling?
The ability to distinguish supposition from belief and to aid rational choices by running thought experiments
Why are the Dual-Process theories efficient at making decisions?
Type 1 thinking automatically forms a basis for decision-making, while Type 2 thinking takes over and potentially alter that decision based on deliberate reasoning.
What is not a criticism of dual-process theories addressed in Evans & Stanovich (2013) paper? A) Proposed attribute clusters are not reliably aligned B) Fails to adequately address neural mechanisms underlying decision making C) There is a continuum of processing styles, not discrete types D) Single-process accounts may be offered for dual-process phenomena
B) Fails to adequately address neural mechanisms underlying decision making
What does the term ‘Naturalistic Decision Making’ refer to?
Naturalistic Decision Making focuses on the success of expert intuition in instances where it has not been mislead by heuristics and biases
Explain the difference between system 1 and system 2 thinking according to Daniel Kahneman and provide examples of situations where each type of system thinking might be useful?
System 1 thinking is automatic, fast, and intuitive, while system 2 thinking is more deliberate, slow and analytical. System 1 thinking is useful in situations where quick decisions need to be made, such as in emergencies or routine tasks. System 2 thinking is more appropriate in situations that require careful consideration and reasoning, such as when solving complex problems or making important decisions.
What is naturalistic decision-making?
Naturalistic Decision Making (or NDM) is an approach that focuses on the success of expert intuition.
What is the “frequency heuristic,” and how does it relate to dual-process theories of cognition?
The frequency heuristic is a cognitive bias that involves making judgments based on the ease with which examples come to mind. It relates to dual-process theories of cognition because it is thought to be a product of Type 1 processes, which rely heavily on intuitive, automatic judgments.
What are the defining characteristics of Type 2 processing?
cognitive decoupling and hypothetical thinking
What cognitive biases are associated with System 1 processing in dual-process theories of higher cognition?
System 1 processing is associated with several cognitive biases, including the availability heuristic, confirmation bias, and the affect heuristic. The availability heuristic is a cognitive bias in which individuals rely on information that is readily available in their memory when making judgments or decisions. Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out and interpret information in a way that confirms pre-existing beliefs or expectations. Finally, the affect heuristic is a cognitive bias in which individuals make judgments and decisions based on their emotional reactions or gut feelings.
How do dual-process theories explain cognitive biases and errors?
Dual-process theories propose that cognitive biases and errors occur when intuitive processes override or bias reflective processes. For example, confirmation bias occurs when people selectively attend to and remember information that confirms their pre-existing beliefs, because this is more intuitive than considering disconfirming evidence.
In the tripartite model of the mind, developed by Stanovich, what are the reflective mind and the algorithmic mind referring to?
The reflective and algorithmic mind refer to modes within Type 2 processing. The reflective mind refers to individual differences in rational thinking dispositions, whilst the algorithmic mind refers to individual differences in cognitive ability/fluid intelligence.
True or False: Type 1 thinking is fast, but always loses out on accuracy
False: This is not always the case as expert intuition in many instances has been shown to be fast and remarkable accurate (e.g., Chess masters’ evaluation of the next move in complex positions)
True or false: naturalistic decision making relies on the belief that expertise and intuition are inherently flawed when making decisions.
False. NDM is intiution-based.
True or False: Type 2 thinking can fail victim to heuristics
TRUE
True or False: All dual-process theories are the same
FALSE There are multiple and vague definitions offered by a variety of theorists
What are the defining features of Type 1 processing?
The two defining features of Type 1 processing are (1) it is autonomous and (2) does not require working memory.
What is the preferred method of comparison for HB researchers when evaluating the performance of professionals?
model
Why is cognitive decoupling thought to be necessary for hypothetical thought?
Cognitive decoupling is a central feature of Type 2 processing and makes hypothetical thinking possible because it involves the ability to decouple one’s thoughts and imaginings from real-world situations. In order to reason hypothetically, individuals must be able to prevent their representations of the real world from becoming confused with representations of imaginary situations.
What is intuitive expertise
when an expert’s skills become automatic (not as cognitively effortful to undertake) whereby the expert’s exertion of their abilities have the characteristics of system 1 activities.
