Class 6: Reasoning and problem solving Flashcards
1
Q
True/False? A straw man argument is when an individual misrepresents someone’s argument in a way that makes it weaker, and then attacks that misrepresentation instead of the actual argument.
A
True.
2
Q
filll in the blank: The goal of exposing these fallacies and coaxing people into renouncing them is called ______.
A
critical thinking.
3
Q
True or false, Deductive reasoning: The process of drawing a logical conclusion from a set of premises, such that the conclusion must be true if the premises are true.
A
TRUE
4
Q
In your own words describe what the argument from authority is
A
The argument from authority is when someone believes that a person can reference a smarter person or power that knows all and cannot be wrong and therefore their own statement cannot be wrong.
5
Q
What are informal fallacies?
A
Informal fallacies are errors in reasoning that occur when people do not follow the rules of logic at all.
6
Q
What is the relationship between critical thinking and rationality?
A
Critical thinking is a key component of rationality, as it involves using reason and evidence to evaluate arguments and make informed judgments. Without critical thinking, our decision-making is more likely to be influenced by biases, emotions, and faulty reasoning.
7
Q
Propositional logic can be used to evaluate the validity of an argument by constructing a truth table to determine whether the premises support the conclusion. (True or False).
A
True!
8
Q
What is the difference between a valid and sound argument?
A
A valid argument correctly applies rules of inference, only telling us that the conclusion must be true if the premises are true. Whereas, a sound argument is where rules are a to a true premise and then must, therefore, yield a true conclusion.
9
Q
Bloodletting was a popular form of treatment for centuries. What type of fallacy is this an example of?
A
The bandwagon fallacy. Physicians continued to use bloodletting simply because it was a widely accepted and established practice, rather than because it had been shown to be effective.
10
Q
True or False: Denying the antecedent is one type of logical fallacy which occurs when someone assumes the antecedent to be false, and therefore assume the consequent that follows must also be false.
A
TRUE
11
Q
An arguer makes a controversial statement which is refuted by an opponent. (For example: Climate change is a hoax. It’s just a way for scientists to get funding.). But then changes the goalposts to a more moderate argument e.g. “Okay, I didn’t mean it’s a complete hoax. I just think some of the data is exaggerated, and we need to approach the issue with caution.”. This is an example of the [blank] fallacy.
A
Motte and Bailey
12
Q
What is the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?
A
Deductive reasoning starts with general principles and applies them to specific cases, while inductive reasoning starts with specific cases and uses them to infer general principles.
13
Q
Is deontic logic a real branch of logic?
A
Yes, it is concerned with permission, obligation, and duty and studies concepts such as ‘ought’, ‘should’, and ‘must’, for example.
14
Q
What is the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?
A
Deductive reasoning starts with a set of premises and reaches a specific conclusion, while inductive reasoning starts with observations and generalizes to a broader conclusion.
15
Q
Which fallacy is best described by a person trying to refute an opponent’s argument not by reason, but by insulting his/ her character?
A
Ad hominem
16
Q
What are Informal Fallacies?
A
They are errors in reasoning due to the content of an argument rather than logical structure. It is difficult to detect because they rely on emotional or psychological appeals rather than formal logic.
17
Q
True or False: According to Pinker, the concept of “common sense” is a reliable guide to making good decisions.
A
False. Pinker argues that “common sense” can often be misleading, and that relying solely on intuition can lead to poor decision-making.
18
Q
True or False Rationality is implemented in the mind as a list of propositions and a chain of logical rules
A
False The mind forms rationale using a family of cognitive models such as pattern associators
19
Q
What are Formal Fallacies?
A
They are errors in the structure of an argument which can be explained by incorrect logic form or propositional calculus.
20
Q
How is family resemblance described in the article?
A
Family resemblance is where there are no necessary and sufficient features to identify or define a category, but rather a variety of features that run through different subsets of the category. This allows people to identify whether something belongs to that category. For example, physical features of members of a family are not always identical for everyone, but most of the members will have at least some of them, and thus it is easier to identify them as part of the same family.
21
Q
What is the difference between validity and soundness? a. Validity refers to the logical relationship between the premises and the conclusion, while soundness refers to the truth of the conclusion. b. Validity refers to the truth of the conclusion, while soundness refers to the truth of the premises. c. Validity refers to the strength of the argument, while soundness refers to the relevance of the argument. d. Validity refers to the relevance of the argument, while soundness refers to the strength of the argument.
A
The correct answer is a. Validity refers to to the logical relationship between the premises and the conclusion, while soundness refers to the truth of the conclusion. A valid argument correctly applies rules of inference to the premises. It only tells us that if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true. It makes no commitment as to whether the premises are true, and thus says nothing about the truth of the conclusion. This may be contrasted with a sound argument, one that applies the rules correctly to true premises and thus yields a true conclusion.
22
Q
Fill in the blank: L________ L______ U_____ is a theoretical world where background knowledge is disregarded and all relevant facts are laid out as premises, which allows for deduction of new knowledge without existing information affecting it.
A
Leibniz’s Logical Utopia
23
Q
define tautologies
A
statements that are inherently true due to logical structure, they don’t provide new information. For example: it is what it is – restates the same idea, it is useful in clarifying points or emphasising ideas, overuse leads to lack of clarity and precision
24
Q
Define syllogism.
A
Syllogism is a three-part logical argument. The first two propositions are two premises combined to arrive at the third proposition which is the conclusion.
25
They are the foundation upon which an argument is built and are considered to be true or accepted as true.
Premises
26
When do the laws of logic apply?
The laws of logic are general-purpose. They apply when the content is topical, obscure, or even non-sensical.
27
What is a rational argumentation?
A common ground is established on premises that are accepted as truth, in conjunction with conditional statements that ensure that it is agreed that one proposition follows on from another, and thus, using inference yields the logical implications
28
Which formal logical fallacy is best represented in the following statement? "You know, Joe Rogan is the ultimate human - I mean, the man is so disciplined that he takes ice baths every morning, fasts for 16 hours a day, and even communicates with machine elves on a regular basis. I guess that's just what it takes to achieve peak performance these days."
This example contains several tendentious presuppositions. Firstly, it presupposes that Joe Rogan is the ultimate human, which is a subjective and biased opinion. Secondly, it presupposes that taking ice baths and practicing intermittent fasting are essential to achieving peak performance, which may not necessarily be true for everyone. Finally, the reference to machine elves is a humorous exaggeration that reinforces the presupposition that Joe Rogan is some sort of superhuman, even though communicating with machine elves is not a proven or scientifically recognized practice.
29
How do we counter informal fallacies?
By using Critical Thinking.
30
Why is critical thinking and logic important?
Its an pretty essential skill when navigating the world and for making informed decisions that helps us to avoid errors in reasoning and judgment.
31
The example in pinker ’s logic which identified the mnemonic symbols we use for connectors in formal logic are not synonymous with the ways they are used in conversation is_________________.
The difference between“if” in everyday English and iF in logic is an example.
32
What is the purpose of Bayesian reasoning? A) To analyze and evaluate information in order to make well-reasoned judgments and decisions B) To compare two things as if they are equal when they are not, leading to a false or misleading conclusion C) To draw a conclusion from two premises using deductive reasoning D) To update prior beliefs or probabilities based on new evidence or data E) To conclude that something is true simply because it has not been proven false, or vice versa
D) To update prior beliefs or probabilities based on new evidence or data.
33
Give a brief explanation about a type of logical fallacy of “Denying the Antecedent”
“Denying the antecedent” is a type of logical fallacy that occurs when someone assumes the antecedent to be false, then the consequent that follows must also be false (e.g., “it didn’t rain, therefore the streets are not wet”). However, this type of fallacy is a common mistake which can lead to flawed conclusions as there may be other factors that may lead to the same outcome.
34
Which formal logical fallacy does the following statement contain? If I study hard, I will get good grades. I didn't study hard. Therefore, I didn't get good grades.
Denying the antecedent. This refers to the fallacy that occurs when an individual assumes in an "if-then" statement that if the antecedent is false, then the consequent must also be false. However, in this example there may be other ways apart from study that lead on to get good grades.
35
Fill in the blanks: A _ is a logical argument in which a conclusion is drawn from two premises. The classic example is "All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal."
Syllogism.
36
According to Pinker 2021, Systems of logic are formalized as what?
Rules that allow one to deduce new statements from old statements by replacing some strings of symbols with others.
37
Judging truth or false: critical thinking is the basis of logic.
False. Critical thinking is using logic and reasoning to evaluate arguments and evidence. Logic provides the framework and rules for making valid inferences and deductions, while critical thinking applies these principles to analyse and evaluate arguments and evidence. In other words, critical thinking requires logical thinking to identify flaws in reasoning and develop well-supported arguments. Logic is, therefore, the foundation on which critical thinking is built.
38
What is an example of an ad hominem fallacy, and how does it differ from a legitimate criticism of the person making the argument?
A legitimate criticism of the person making the argument would be relevant to the argument's merits, such as questioning their expertise in the relevant field.
39
Define family resemblance categories.
Categories that are not easily stipulated in logic and often have stereotypes.
40
What is the difference between a valid argument and a sound argument?
A valid argument needs only to apply rules of inference to premises and does not make a comment on the truthfulness of premises. A sound argument however, applies rules to true premises resulting in truthful conclusions.
41
True or False: Many technology critics fear that as Al systems are entrusted with decisions about the fates of people, they could perpetuate biases that no one can identify and uproot.
TRUE
42
What is deductive reasoning?
Deductive reasoning is when we use general principles to draw specific conclusions.
43
What are some examples of how logical fallacies can lead to erroneous thinking, according to Pinker? a) Stereotyping, confirmation bias, and overgeneralization b) Slippery slope, appeal to authority, and false dichotomy c) Hasty generalization, ad hominem, and strawman argument d) All of the above
b) Slippery slope, appeal to authority, and false dichotomy
44
According to Steven Pinker, what is rationality and why is it important for human progress?
Rationality, according to Steven Pinker, is the ability to think critically, weigh evidence, and make decisions based on probabilities. It involves updating beliefs based on new information and avoiding cognitive biases and emotional influences. Pinker argues that rationality is important for human progress because it allows us to solve complex problems, make informed decisions, and build institutions that promote collective well-being.
45
Jenny says Oliver went to prep school stating "You look stupid and rich". Oliver protests "Actually, I'm smart and poor". What else could Oliver have said to contradict Jenny?
He also could have stated "I'm stupid and poor", or "I'm smart and rich", because he only had to contradict one part of her statement because she used the word AND not the word OR
46
The following is an example of what type of logical fallacy? First, we allow people to carry guns in public. Then, we’ll have to allow them to carry guns in schools. After that, we’ll have to allow them to carry guns in churches. And before we know it, we’ll have a society where everyone is carrying guns everywhere they go.
The slippery slope fallacy
47
The statement "95% if people agree with my opinion, so you should too!" is an example of which fallacy?
The bandwagon fallacy
48
If someone is allergic to peanuts, they will experience hives. If Julie experienced hives, therefore she must be allergic to peanuts. This is an example of which fallacy? A) Denying the Antecedent B) Affirming the Antecedent C) Denying the Consequent D) Affirming the Consequent
D) This is an example of Affirming the Consequent as the fact that Julie experienced hives does not necessarily mean that she is allergic to peanuts. There are many other possible reasons for why Julie could experience hives.
49
What is the difference between logic and critical thinking according to Pinker's analysis in "Rationality: What it is, why it seems scarce, why it matters"?
Pinker distinguishes between logic and critical thinking by explaining that logic is the formal system of rules used to determine the validity of arguments, while critical thinking involves the ability to evaluate evidence and arguments in a systematic and unbiased way, taking into account factors like reliability, relevance, and consistency
50
What kind of argument correctly applies rules of inference to the premises, but only tells us that if the premises are true then the conclusion must be true? It makes no guarantee as to whether the premises are true, and therefore says nothing about the truth of the conclusion.
A valid argument
51
____ consists in laying out a common ground of premises that everyone accepts as true, together with conditional statements that everyone agrees make one proposition follow from another, and then cranking through valid rules of inference that yield the logical, and only the logical, implications of the premises.
Rational argumentation
52
How might our understanding of rationality change in the future, given advances in technology, neuroscience, and other fields? Will we need to redefine what it means to be rational, or will the core principles remain the same?
Our understanding of rationality may change in the future as new technologies and scientific discoveries emerge. For example, advances in neuroscience may shed new light on the nature of human reasoning and decision-making, and may lead to new tools for improving rational thinking. Similarly, the rise of artificial intelligence and machine learning may require us to rethink what it means to be rational in the context of intelligent machines.
53
What is false dichotomy?
A false dichotomy is a fallacy that presents only two options as if they are the only ones available, when in fact there may be other options. It is a false choice because it ignores the possibility of other alternatives.
54
Why should an individual use deductive compared to inductive reasoning?
Deductive reasoning is useful when you want to prove something with absolute certainty, while inductive reasoning is useful when you want to make predictions based on observations.
55
“If it's a holiday, then the store will be closed. The store is closed. Therefore, it must be a holiday." This argument is not valid because the store could be closed for other reasons, such as renovations or a power outage. This is an example of: A. denying the antecedent B. Denying the consequent C. Affirming the antecedent D. Affirming the consequent
D. Affirming the consequent. This is a common invalid inference/formal fallacy where sequences of statements are made in which the conclusions may seem to follow from the premises but in fact do not. i.e. “If P then Q. Q. Therefore, P.”
56
What is the ability to think and make decisions based on logic called?
Rationality
57
What is the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?
Deductive reasoning is a logical process that involves drawing a conclusion based on previously accepted premises, while inductive reasoning involves using specific observations or examples to arrive at a general conclusion.
58
What is the difference between a necessary and a sufficient condition? a. A necessary condition is one that is required for an event to occur, while a sufficient condition is one that guarantees an event will occur. b. A necessary condition is one that guarantees an event will occur, while a sufficient condition is one that is required for an event to occur. c. A necessary condition is one that is required for an event to occur, while a sufficient condition is one that is not required for an event to occur. d. A necessary condition is one that is not required for an event to occur, while a sufficient condition is one that is required for an event to occur.
The correct answer is a. A necessary condition is one that is required for an event to occur, while a sufficient condition is one that guarantees an event will occur. A necessary condition is a condition that must be present for an event to occur, while a sufficient condition is a condition that, if present, guarantees that the event will occur.
59
The following is an example of what type of logical fallacy? Alice and Bob are running for mayor of their town. Alice has a plan to improve public transportation and reduce traffic congestion. Bob does not like Alice’s plan and wants to persuade voters not to support her. He finds out that Alice’s cousin is a notorious criminal who has been arrested several times for fraud and theft. He decides to use this information against Alice in his campaign ads.
Guilt by association which is a form of an ad hominem argument.
60
What is the goal of critical thinking
The goal of critical thinking is to identify and eliminate these fallacies to arrive at sound conclusions. However, logic is not always suitable for all kinds of knowledge and goals.
61
Define 'Formal Fallacies'
The errors in deductive reasoning that arise from a flaw in the logical structure of an argument
62
According to Steven Pinker's chapter on "Logic and critical thinking" in "Rationality why is critical thinking important?
Critical thinking is important because it helps us evaluate arguments and evidence, avoid fallacies and errors in thinking, and make well-reasoned decisions.
63
Denying the Antecedent is a type of logical fallacy that occurs when someone assumes that if the antecedent of an if-then statement is false, then the consequent must also be "true or false"?
FALSE
64
Explain what an empirical truth is and why it cannot be proven with only logic.
An empirical truth is a truth obtained via experimentation or observation. Logic, while important in thinking of possible explanations for these truths, needs observation to formulate it.
65
If determining whether something belongs to a certain category, such as prime numbers, is simply true or false, what type of category does it belong to?
Classical category. A number is either prime or it is not
66
True or False: Steven Pinker argues that critical thinking is an innate human ability that requires no training or practice.
False. Pinker acknowledges that critical thinking skills require training and practice, and that they don't come naturally to everyone.
67
What is Deductive Logic?
It is a potent tool that enables an individual to draw out conclusions that are already contained in a premise.
68
What is rational argumentation?
It consists of laying out a common ground of premises that everyone accepts as true, together with conditional statements that everyone agrees make one proposition follow from another, and then cranking through valid rules of inference that yield the logical implications of the premises.
69
A type of fallacy where you attack the character or attributes of the person with the argument opposing yours.
Ad hominem fallacy
70
Is the statement, "If Canada had invaded Washington DC in 2010, they would have captured the president" sound, valid, both or neither?
Neither. The statement is not valid or sound because the scenario did not occur, and the president being captured after invading DC does not necessarily follow logically.
71
Why does Pinker believe that logical thinking and critical thinking are essential?
Pinker believes these can help an individual understand the world and make decisions based on these skills
72
Why are almost all arguments in practice considered enthymemes?
No mortal has the time or attention span to lay out every last premise and implication in an argument.
73
What are some achievements of human rationality enabled by propositional reasoning? A. Science, morality, and law. B. Superstition, prejudice, and ignorance. C. Violence, chaos, and anarchy. D. None of the above.
A
74
What is a logical fallacy?
A logical fallacy is an error in reasoning that can lead to incorrect conclusions
75
define genetic fallacy
evaluating an idea not by its truth but by its origins
76
A woman is mortal, Tia is a woman, therefore Tia is mortal. What is this an example of relating to the P and Q statements?
If P then Q "affirming the antecedent"
77
What`s the "Straw man fallacy"?
A type of argument that misrepresents an opponent's position. It then attacks that misrepresentation instead of their actual argument. This fallacy is often used as a way to undermine an opponent's argument without engaging with their actual claims.
78
define the term Syllogism
Definition: A form of deductive reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two premises, using a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.
79
Fill in the blanks: _ _ involves drawing general conclusions based on specific observations or examples. This type of _ is used in many scientific and social scientific fields to develop hypotheses and theories.
Inductive reasoning ; reasoning.
80
What is critical thinking?
Critical thinking involves the ability to evaluate arguments and evidence in a rational way.
81
“I really shouldn’t eat this slice of pizza because if I do I’ll probably lose all control and go off my diet, and then I’ll keep gaining weight and eventually get diabetes” is an example of what fallacy
Slippery slope fallacy
82
Describe in short what logic is?
Logic is the study of arguments and reasoning, that provides a framework for evaluating the strength of the argument.
83
Discuss the reasons why people often appear to be irrational, according to Pinker. What are some cognitive biases and emotional influences that can lead to irrational decision-making and how can we overcome these challenges?
According to Pinker, people often appear to be irrational due to cognitive biases such as confirmation bias, availability bias, and the sunk cost fallacy. These biases can distort our perception of reality and lead us to make decisions that are not in our best interest. Emotional influences, such as fear, anger, or desire, can also cloud our judgment and lead us to make impulsive or irrational choices. To overcome these challenges, Pinker suggests that we need to cultivate self-awareness, critical thinking skills, and a willingness to update our beliefs in response to new evidence.
84
Which of the following is an example of a deductive reasoning process? A) Bayesian Reasoning B) Critical Thinking C) Inductive Reasoning D) Confirmation Bias E) Argument from Ignorance
C) Inductive Reasoning.
85
"Everyone in Australia likes to surf. I am in Australia. Therefore, I like to surf." What kind of logic is this?
Deductive logic
86
How do Pinker's chapter on logic and critical thinking relate to the broader themes of his book, Rationality: What it is, why it seems scarce, why it matters?
Pinker's chapter on logic and critical thinking is a key component of his broader exploration of rationality in his book. By discussing the importance of logical reasoning and critical thinking, he highlights the role that these skills play in promoting rational decision-making and in avoiding fallacious reasoning. Through his exploration of rationality, Pinker aims to provide insights into why people sometimes fail to make rational decisions and to suggest ways that individuals and societies can promote rationality more effectively.
87
Fallacious argument
Deductively invalid, inductively very weak, contains an unjustified premise, or ignores relevant evidence that is available and should be known by the arguer
88
True or False: Categorical reasoning is a mode of thinking that deals with the contents of statements, not their forms.
False. Categorical reasoning is a mode of thinking that deals with the forms of statements, not their contents.
89
What is the difference between a cognitive bias and a logical fallacy?
A cognitive bias is a systematic error in thinking or decision-making that arises from the way our brains process information, while a logical fallacy is a mistake in reasoning that occurs when someone makes an argument that is not logically valid. Both can lead to errors in judgment or decision-making, but require different strategies to address.
90
"Most people I know think astrology is scientific, so there must be something to it” is an example of what kind of fallacy?
Bandwagon fallacy
91
True or false: Formal logic takes into account the content of the proposition, context, and background knowledge in order to come to a rational decision/outcome.
False - formal logic in the strict sense means forgetting everything you know that might be mixed into the deliberation - content of the proposition, context, background information - and just dealing with what lies in front of you.
92
True or False: Pinker believes that formal logic and mathematics are the only tools necessary for effective critical thinking.
False. Pinker acknowledges that while formal logic and mathematics can be useful, critical thinking also requires an understanding of informal fallacies, cognitive biases, and statistical reasoning.
93
What is the purpose of 'deductive logic'?
Deductive logic is a potent tool used for drawing out conclusions that are already contained in the premises.
94
True or false: For an argument to be valid, it also needs to be sound.
False. An argument can be valid without being sound.
95
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of deductive reasoning? a) It involves drawing a conclusion based on general principles or premises b) It is based on valid logical inference c) It always leads to a true conclusion d) It is used to test the validity of arguments
c) It always leads to a true conclusion
96
What is the main difference between Logical & Empirical truths?
Logical truths are true by definition/laws of logics while empirical truths are based on observations made and evidence.
97
What is an ad hominem attack?
A fallacious type of argument that is directed at a particular person and not the stance they maintain.
98
What is the fallacy of affirming the consequent?
The fallacy of affirming the consequent occurs when someone assumes that if a particular outcome occurred, then a particular condition must have been met, when in fact there may be other explanations for the outcome.
99
What is special pleading?
An informal fallacy that arguers engage in where they replace their proposition with one that is easily defensible and move the goalposts in the conversation to supplement their arguments.
100
Why are conditional statements an important tool?
It is an essential part of logical thinking as it allows us to reason about cause-and-effect relationships and make predictions about what will happen under certain events/conditions.
101
True or False. Jennifer does not agree with an idea proposed by her professor, so she badmouthed the professor and said that he does not know what he is talking about. The argument made by Jennifer is an example of an ad hominem argument.
True. An ad hominem argument is when one attempted to rebut an idea by attacking or insulting the person, not the idea itself.
102
True or false? Modus ponens, a valid rule of inference, refers to "denying the consequent".
False. Modus ponens refers to "affirming the antecedent", whereas modus tollens, another valid rule of inference, refers to "denying the consequent".
103
What is deductive logic and what is inductive logic?
Deductive logic is using premises given to us and making a conclusion only from these premises, while inductive logic requires us to look at a number of evidence and making a generalised conclusion from them.
104
Consider the following argument: All dogs can fly. Pugs are dogs. Therefore, pugs can fly. Is the argument: (a) valid but not sound, (b) sound but not valid, (c) both valid and sound, or (d) neither valid nor sound?
(a) Valid but not sound.
105
What is the name of the diversionary tactic that ignores the accusation towards them and points out a flaw in the other person.
tu quoque - example: a woman comes home from work early to find her husband in bed with her best friend. The startled man says, "What are you doing home so early?" She replies, "What are you doing in bed with my best friend!?" He snaps, "Don't change the subject!"
106
When P is true and Q is false, what is the answer for P or Q?
TRUE
107
Fill out the truth table, given the conditional statement: If P then Q P is true, Q is true, ANSWER A P is true, Q is false, ANSWER B P is false, Q is true, ANSWER C P is false, Q is false, ANSWER D
ANSWER A: True ANSWER B: False ANSWER C: True ANSWER D: True
108
Name some strategies that Pinker states can help negate the natural tendencies of human minds to be biased and make errors.
Pinker suggests using formal logic and critical thinking skills to analyze arguments and evidence, identify fallacies and biases, and arrive at well-supported conclusions. He also emphasizes the need for intellectual humility, an open-minded attitude, and a willingness to revise one's beliefs in light of new evidence.
109
According to Pinker, what is the most elementary system of formal logic?
Propositional Calculus.
110
According to Pinker, what are the two components of rationality?
The two components of rationality, as outlined by Pinker, are epistemic rationality (the ability to form true beliefs) and instrumental rationality (the ability to make effective decisions to achieve one's goals)
111
What's one reason why logic will never rule the world?
The fundamental distinction between logical and empirical propositions, also known as analytic and synthetic propositions. Logical propositions can be determined true or false by understanding the meaning of the words and checking a truth table. Empirical propositions, on the other hand, require observation or experience to determine their truth value.
112
The logical fallacy that occurs when someone assumes the antecedent to be false, and therefore assume the consequent that follows must also be false is called…
Denying the antecedent
113
Fill in the missing blank: Steven Pinker argues that cultivating logic and critical thinking is essential for fostering (BLANK WORD) in individuals and society as a whole.
rationality
114
What is the key point of Pinkers article?
Pinker argues that logic and critical thinking are crucial for making sense of the world around us, and that improving these skills can help us become more informed, open-minded, and effective thinkers.
115
Why is it so difficult to break down every concept and argument into formal logic and create Leibniz’s “logical utopia”?
Formal logic requires us to remove all context and past knowledge we have, which is impossible. Formal logic requires a strict definition for all terms and concepts, which is impossible (e.g., what makes up a game?)
116
According to Steven Pinker, critical thinking is a process of ____________, which involves evaluating arguments and evidence in order to form a rational and well-supported conclusion.
evaluation.
117
What role does education play in promoting rationality, and how can critical thinking be taught effectively?
According to Pinker, education plays a crucial role in promoting rationality by teaching students the principles of logic and critical thinking and by exposing them to a wide range of perspectives and evidence. He argues that critical thinking can be taught effectively by emphasizing the importance of evidence, encouraging students to question their assumptions and biases, and providing them with opportunities to practice evaluating arguments and evidence in a variety of contexts.
118
What is the fallacy of affirming the consequent, and how does it relate to deductive reasoning?
The fallacy of affirming the consequent occurs when someone assumes that a particular cause must be present if a particular effect is present. This fallacy violates the rules of deductive logic that require a valid argument to have a conclusion that logically follows from its premises.
119
Is the statement, "If Canada had invaded Washington DC in 2010, they would have control of the White House" sound, valid, both or neither?
Valid. The statement is not sound as the premises are false, however, the conclusion follows logically from the premises.
120
Deductive logic relies on .... that are true
Premises
121
What is the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?
Inductive reasoning moves from a specific observations to general conclusions while deductive reasoning will move from general premises to specific conclusions.
122
What is an example of affirming the antecedent?
"If someone is a woman, then she is mortal. Sarah is a woman. Therefore, Sarah is mortal".
123
What is Denying the Antecedent?
The logical fallacy that if an if-then statement is false ('If it has rained, then the streets will be wet) the consequence must be false. This is not always true as you can have certain outcomes without certain conditions (streets can be wet without rain)
124
What type of fallacy is being displayed here: A: Lets go to the movie! B: No, I don't feel like it today A: You never want to have fun...
Strawman fallacy - misinterpreting someones argument to make it easier to attack
125
Fill in the blanks: __ is a valid form of deductive reasoning that involves affirming the antecedent of a conditional statement. For example, if the conditional statement is "If it is raining, then the ground is wet," and it is known that it is raining, then it can be deduced that the ground is wet.
Modus ponens.
126
Fill in the blank: _________ logic refers to the branch of logic concerned with the formal analysis of natural language statements and the development of a system of inference
Classical logic refers to the branch of logic concerned with the formal analysis of natural language statements and the development of a system of inference
127
In what way can special pleading be faulty?
Someone might ignore evidence or arguments that might contradict their position, while emphasizing those that support it. This can lead to a biased or one-sided perspective that ignores important facts or alternative viewpoints. Special pleading is a logical fallacy because it relies on an unjustified exception or double standard, rather than solid reasoning and evidence.
128
What is formal reconstruction useful for?
For exposing hidden flaws in other's arguments.
129
Which of the following is an example of a fallacy in logical reasoning? a) Drawing a conclusion that logically follows from the premises b) Attacking the person instead of their argument c) Using valid reasoning to support a conclusion d) Providing evidence to support a claim
b) Attacking the person instead of their argument. This is an example of an ad hominem fallacy, where the person making the argument is attacked rather than the argument itself.
130
True or False? "IF P THEN Q. Q. Therefore, P” is an example of denying the antecedent.
False (it's affirming the consequent)
131
When interviewers use the "so what you're saying is.." tactic, this could be considered a real-life form of the [blank] informal fallacy.
Straw Man
132
True of false: A sound argument can be completely untrue.
False. A valid argument can follow formal logic without any adherence to truth. A sound argument must be both valid and true.
133
According to Steven Pinker, what is a straw man fallacy?
A straw man fallacy is a type of argumentative fallacy in which an opponent's argument is misrepresented in a way that makes it easier to attack.
134
"If someone dies people are sad. People are sad, therefore someone must have died" This is an example of what kind of invalid inference?
Affirming the consequent If P then Q, does not entail the converse that if Q then P.
135
What is the difference between validity and soundness in an argument?
Validity refers to the logical structure of an argument, while soundness refers to the truth of the premises and the validity of the argument.
136
What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning?
Inductive reasoning involves drawing conclusions from specific observations or examples, while deductive reasoning involves starting with a general principle or premise and applying it to a specific case or situation.
137
TRUE OR FALSE: This is an example of informal fallacy. Right when I beat the enderdragon in minecraft, the sun came up. Winning minecraft must've caused the sunrise.
TRUE
138
Gerald the rooster & Susan the sloth were debating about the best kind of coping strategy for stress. After a heated 10-minute debate, Gerald got upset with Susan saying that “sloths have nothing to be stressed about anyway! You move too slow!” What is this an example of?
This was an example of an ad hominem attack on Susan! ‘Ad hominem’ literally translates to “to the person” meaning that you are attacking an aspect of the person (or sloth) instead of addressing the position they hold.
139
Why are AI critics fear the technology being used to make decisions for them or mankind?
If Al systems are entrusted with decisions they could follow and exaggerate unidentified or nonremovable biases that could cause harm.
140
What is formal reconstruction?
It is the process of breaking down the logic of an argument into a set of premises and conditionals in order to better spot existing fallacies within the argument.
141
Judgement of true and false: Abductive reasoning--This type of reasoning involves drawing general conclusions based on limited observations
False. The type of reasoning that involves drawing generalizations based on a limited set of observations is Inductive reasoning, and the type of reasoning that involves making an inference or hypothesis based on limited or incomplete evidence is abductive reasoning. Overall, inductive and abductive reasoning involves making educated guesses or inferences based on available information. The main difference is that inductive reasoning starts with specific observations and draws a general conclusion. In contrast, abductive reasoning starts with incomplete or uncertain information and creates a hypothesis or explanation that fits the available evidence.
142
What is Inference?
Drawing conclusions about something based on the surrounding effects and evidence
143
Why is logic called "formal"?
It deals with the form of statements, the way in which they're assembled out of subjects, predicates, and logical words, not their content
144
Fill in the blank: _______________ reasoning involves drawing conclusions that are probable based on observed evidence.
Inductive reasoning involves drawing conclusions that are probable based on observed evidence. In contrast, deductive reasoning involves drawing conclusions from premises that are necessarily true.
145
What is the most elementary system of logic?
Propositional calculus.
146
What is the importance of clear thinking, rationality, and skepticism according to Pinker?
Pinker emphasizes the importance of clear thinking and rationality especially in a modern era where misinformation, bias and ideological polorization
147
What is a syllogism, and how can it be used to evaluate arguments?
A syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning that involves drawing a conclusion from two premises. It can be used to evaluate the validity of an argument by examining the structure of the premises and conclusion.
148
True or false: The argument from authority is a fallacy occurring when an argument is accepted simply because it is made by an authority figure.
True.
149
What is inductive reasoning?
Inductive reasoning is when we use specific observations to make generalizations.
150
About informal fallacies,Dan Sperber and Hugo Mercier believe winner of argument always are the most cogent position,barely someone will have the patience to formally reconstruct an argument and evaluate its correction,is that true or false?
TRUE
151
What is the Slippery Slope Fallacy?
The assertion that if someone takes a small step towards something, it will inevitably lead to a series of significant and catastrophic events afterward
152
Fill in the blank: The fallacy of moving the goalposts involves demanding one thing, but then explaining that you only mean __________.
Something else entirely.
153
What is the distinction between logic and critical thinking in Pinker's book?
Logic refers to a formal system of reasoning based on rules, while critical thinking is the process of evaluating arguments and evidence to form sound conclusions.
154
What is deductive logic, and what is its potential for discovering new truths about the world?
Deductive logic is a powerful tool that allows us to draw conclusions from premises that are already known to be true. While it cannot provide new insights based on evidence, it can help us arrive at less obvious propositions by using premises that we all agree on. With such power, it is possible to discover new truths about the world and resolve disputes.
155
What does the Bandwagon fallacy take advantage of?
Like the argument from authority, the bandwagon fallacy exploits the fact that we are social, hierarchical primates.
156
Define the difference between a valid argument and a sound argument.
Validity refers to the relationship between the premises and the conclusion of an argument. An argument is valid if and only if it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false at the same time. In other words, a valid argument is one where the conclusion logically follows from the premises. Soundness, on the other hand, refers to the truth and validity of an argument. A sound argument is a valid argument with true premises. In other words, a sound argument is one where the conclusion logically follows from the premises, and the premises themselves are true.
157
Logic is necessarily rational. True or False?
False, a formal logic proposition can be entirely irrational because although “valid“ it is not necessarily “true“
158
What is formal logic and why is it called "formal"?
Formal logic deals not with the contents of statements, but with their forms - the way they are assembled out of subjects, predicates, and logical words like AND, OR, NOT, ALL, SOME, IF, and THEN. It is called "formal" because it applies to all types of content, whether it is topical, obscure, or nonsensical. Systems of logic are formalized as rules that allow one to deduce new statements from old statements by replacing some strings of symbols with others.
159
Explain the difference between a "valid" argument and a "sound" argument.
Valid arguments only tells us that if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true, making no commitment as to whether the premises are true. A sound argument applies the rules correctly to true premises and thus yields a true conclusion.
160
Using an example, explain what denying the antecedent is, and explain why it is invalid.
Denying the antecedent is thinking "If P then Q. Not P. Therefore, not Q". For example, 'If it rains, the streets are wet. It did not rain. Therefore, the streets are not wet'. It is making the mistake of thinking "if P then Q" implies "if not P then not Q". This is an invalid inference because Q can be caused by more than just P! A street-cleaning truck could make the streets wet.
161
Explain the difference between a dichotomy and a false dichotomy.
In a dichotomy only 2 conditions actually exist, whereas more than 2 exist for the false dichotomy, the observer simply believes there's 2.
162
Fill in the Blank: ____________ is a method of reasoning that involves drawing conclusions based on premises that are known to be true.
Deductive Logic
163
'If P then Q. Q. Therefore P', is an example of which formal fallacy?
Affirming the consequent.
164
The logical fallacy of Denying the antecedent argues that if the antecedent of an if-then statement is false the consequent must also be true/false.
False, Hence arguing that if a particular condition is not met then a certain outcome cannot occur. However, we know from the reading this is not always the case as there may be other factors that can lead to the same outcome.
165
What does Pinker suggest that the key to overcoming cognitive biases and heuristics is?
To cultivate a rigorous and systematic approach to thinking, and to be open to feedback, criticism, and diverse perspectives.
166
[If P Then Q. Q. Therefore, P.] For example: If it rains, then the streets are wet. The streets are wet. Therefore, it rained. Why is this argument not valid.
A street-cleaning truck could have just went by.
167
What does formal reconstruction refer to?
The activity of unpacking argument in order to spot fallacies and assumptions that are missing by sorting into a set of premises and conditionals.
168
What is formal logic?
Formal logic deals not with the contents of statements but with their forms – the way they are assembled out of subjects, predicates, and logical words like AND, OR, NOT, ALL, SOME, IF, and THEN.
169
true/false: one of the reason that we still are not resolving disputes by saying "let us calculate is because people often don't even try to play by the rules and commit "infomral fallacies."
TRUE
170
True/False Rational argumentation involve laying out a common ground of premises that not everyone accepts as true.
FALSE
171
What does deductive logic allow us to do
To draw conclusions which are already contained in premises
172
True or false? Deductive logic draws conclusions based on true premises.
TRUE
173
A common fallacy is: Giving a valid argument as though it were sound. True or False?
TRUE
174
Why is it so difficult to use Formal Logic in our everyday life?
The complexity possessed in our daily lives makes it challenging as not every relevant fact can be laid out as a premise.
175
What is logic in the techincal sense, provide a new example.
Logic follows a sequential chain; drawing true conclusion from an initial true statement. E.g., If humans breathe, then Bob breathes
176
How does Pinker describe the relationship between rationality and human reasoning?
Pinker argues that although humans possess the capacity for rationality, they often struggle to achieve it due to cognitive biases and limitations that can interfere with logical and critical thinking.
177
What is deductive logic?
Deductive logic is a tool that infers conclusions that are already contained in the premises.
178
Why is Leibniz's Logical Utopia not applicable to the real world?
Because in the real world you are not able to lay out all relevant facts as a premise and it is also impossible to forget all previous background information.
179
True/False Formal reconstruction never assigned to philosophy students.
FALSE
180
What is the first step one should take regarding the premises to judge if an argument/ statement is valid?
Assume all premises are true, independent of their factual context.
181
What is deductive logic?
Deductive logic is the technical sense of inferring true statements (conclusions) from other true statements (premises).
182
What is the genetic fallacy?
It is a type of logical fallacy that occurs when someone dismisses or accepts a claim based solely on its origin or history, rather than on its actual merits. E.g. "I can't trust anything he says, he comes from a family of criminals"
183
Using an example, explain what affirming the consequent is, and explain why it is invalid.
Affirming the consequent is thinking "If P then Q. Q. Therefore, P". For example, 'If it rains, the streets are wet. The streets are wet. Therefore, it must have rained'. It is making the mistake of confusing "P implies Q" with "Q implies P". This is an invalid inference because Q can be caused by more than just P! A street-cleaning truck could make the streets wet.
184
What is the Bandwagon Fallacy? Give an example.
The Bandwagon Fallacy is a logical fallacy of claiming something is true because everyone (or a majority of people) believes it. Regardless of whether something is actually true or not, if someone believes something because the majority of people believe it, they are influenced by the Bandwagon Fallacy. An example of this is someone believing that there must be some science behind astrology since most people they know believe there is.
185
Explain inductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning is when you use your observations and experiences to form a likely explanation (e.g. Bob gets sick from drinking milk, he does not get sick from drinking other things, Bob is lactose intolerant).
186
According to Pinker, what is essential for rational decision-making?
Logical Thinking
187
If we hear "He sat down and told me his life story", what do we infer?
We infer that he sat down THEN told me his life story.
188
True or False: Affirming the Consequent and Denying the Antecedent are examples of Formal Fallacies
True: Formal fallacies are statements in which the conclusions may appear to follow the premises but do not. Both affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent assume conclusions based on premises, regardless of whether they are true or not
189
True/False Almost all arguments in practice turn into enthymemes.
TRUE
190
Pinker notes that heuristics can lead to errors in judgment, especially in complex situations. Are there any situations where heuristics might be useful or even necessary for decision-making?
While heuristics can lead to errors in judgment, there are situations where they might be useful or even necessary for decision-making. For example, in situations where there is limited time or information available, heuristics can help people make quick and efficient decisions. Additionally, in situations where there are no clear solutions or where the consequences of a decision are uncertain, heuristics can help people navigate ambiguity and complexity.
191
What is the cognitive approach that uses logical reasoning and extensive knowledge of the environment to make decisions that optimize survival and well-being?
Ecological reasoning
192
What are the three propositions of the deductive argument type Syllogism and what are its argument strengths?
1. A major premise which is a general statement or principle 2. A minor premise such as a specific statement that relates to the major premise 3. A conclusion, which follows on logically from the major and minor premise. Therefore Syllogism shows strength through this structure as it allows us to demonstrate the validity of an argument by drawing upon interrelated established principles.
193
Imagine that a group of scientists publishes a study that suggests that a particular type of food is unhealthy and should be avoided. In response, a critic of the study says, "You can't trust those scientists, they're just trying to scare people and get more funding for their research.” This is an example of which type of fallacy? A) bandwagon B) ad hominem C) begging the question or D) special pleading
B – the ad hominem fallacy is where an argument or claim is attacked by criticizing the person making the argument or claim, rather than addressing the substance of the argument or claim. Here the critic is attacking the scientists’ motivations and credibility, instead of their findings.
194
True / False. Complex statements can be formed out of simple ones with logical connectors like and, or , not. and if-then.
TRUE
195
While well documented, formal logical rules may be hard to use in everyday thinking. What are the 3 key reasons for that?
1. Distinction between logical and empirical truths : statements about the physical world can only be established through observation (and not mere scholastic logical argumentation), making it impossible to “sit down and calculate” 2. Formal versus ecological rationality : logical rules are independent of the content they serve, thus one would have to forget all he knows when trying to evaluate the validity of a false statement. Logical doesn’t mean rational. 3. Classical versus family resemblance categories : categories are family resemblance-based rather than Aristotelian ; logical rules ignore the natural world’s complexity in which not every category is reducible to necessary and sufficient conditions
196
What is the difference between a valid argument and a sound argument?
A valid argument correctly applies the rules of interference to the premises but says nothing about the truth of the conclusion. A sound argument correctly applies the rules of interference to the true premises and therefore has a true conclusion.
197
What is Formal Logic?
It deals with the form of logic from subjects, predicates, and logical words such as ‘and, or, not, all, some, if, and then’. An example of formal logic in action is when a new statement is deduced from an old statement by replacing symbols with other logical connector symbols. The meaning of the connectors is irrelevant and is only concerned with categorizing truth from non-truth.
198
True or False: According to the cognitive scientists Dan Sperber and Hugo Mercier, Many informal fallacies come out of a feature of human reasoning which lies so deep in us that, it was the selective pressure that allowed reasoning to evolve.
TRUE
199
Is this a logical argument: "If P then Q. Q. Therefore P"
No. This is a fallacy known as affirming the consequent and is therefore illogical. To put it in an example; "If it rains then the grass is wet. The grass is wet. Therefore it rained" - this is illogical as the grass could be wet by other means.
200
Why is Logic referred to as "formal"?
Because it deals not with the contents of statements but with their forms-the way they are assembled out of subjects, predicates, and logical words like "and, or, not, all, some, if, and then".
201
In a truth table, what is the form of a conditional statement?
If P then Q
202
The following is an example of what type of logical fallacy? Cathy and Dave had a debate about baldness. Cathy said there was a number of hairs that made someone bald. Dave disagreed and shaved one hair at a time from a man with hair. He asked Cathy if the man was bald after each shave. Cathy said no until the man had only one hair left. Then she said he was bald. Dave asked her how that worked. Cathy had no answer.
The paradox of the heap
203
What is a syllogism?
A syllogism is a logical argument consisting of two premises and a conclusion, in which the conclusion is inferred from the premises.
204
What is relations of ideas and matter of ideas?
It is a fundamental distinction between logical propositions and empirical one. It is also called as analytic and synthetic
205
T or F: A syllogism is a type of inductive reasoning.
False. A syllogism is a type of deductive reasoning that uses two premises to draw a conclusion.
206
Propositional reasoning is a mode of thinking that frees us from __________ and stereotypes
Similarity
207
What is Steven Pinker's main argument about people's ability to problem solve, make decisions and critically evaluate situations within this article?
He argues that humans are prone to cognitive biases and errors, which can lead to flawed reasoning and irrational beliefs.
208
What is the goal of critical thinking?
The goal of critical thinking is to expose informal fallacies and coax people into renouncing them. It is aimed at helping people think more rationally and effectively by identifying and correcting their own beliefs and arguments.
209
TRUE or FALSE: A valid argument is one that applies the rules correctly to true premises and yields a true conclusion.
FALSE This is a sound argument. A valid argument correctly applies rules of inference to premises but only tells us that IF the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true. It makes no commitment as to whether the premises are actually true, meaning nothing can be made from them about the truth of the conclusion.
210
what fallacies form chains of guilt by association
genetic fallacies and ad hominin fallacies
211
TRUE OR FALSE: The ad hominem fallacy involves attacking the argument rather than the person making it.
FALSE
212
What are two logical fallacies that can lead to faulty conclusions?
1. Circular reasoning 2. Straw man arguments
213
Which of the following is an example of the fallacy called moving the goalposts? A) "You can't prove that ghosts don't exist, so they must be real." B) "I know I said that I would pay you back next week, but I need another month to come up with the money." C) "The fact that so many people believe in astrology must mean that it's a legitimate science." D) "You said you would consider my argument if I provided three sources, but now you're saying that you won't listen until I can provide ten sources."
D - moving the goalposts is a fallacy in which someone changes the terms of the debate during the debate to avoid conceding a point
214
What is formal reconstruction?
The process of unpacking the logic of an argument as a set of premises and conditionals. This allows one to spot fallacies.
215
According to cognitive scientists Dan Sperber and Hugo Mercier, what feature of human reasoning allowed reasoning to evolve yet lies so deep within us?
Selective pressure
216
Explain how the statement of "if P is true, then Q is true," can be false
It is dependent on whether Q does occur corresponsively. E.g., if you asked me on a date (P), I would say no (Q). This statement was false as she said yes (Q was false)
217
True or False: Logic is called "formal" because it deals with the contents of statements.
False, It deals not with the contents of statements but their forms.
218
What is "whataboutery", and how does Pinker characterize it in the paper?
"Whataboutery" is a fallacy in which an argument is discredited by pointing out the hypocrisy or similar behavior of the opponent. In the paper, Pinker characterizes it as a form of irrelevant conclusion and a common tactic used in political discourse to avoid addressing legitimate criticisms or issues.
219
Imagine a person is arguing for the controversial position that "all forms of alternative medicine are effective." When pressed for evidence, the person retreats to a more defensible position, stating that "alternative medicine can be helpful in some cases." However, when the argument has died down, they return to their original position, claiming that "all forms of alternative medicine are effective." What type of fallacy does this scenario demonstrate?
The motte-and-bailey fallacy. In this scenario, the "motte" is the more defensible, but less controversial position that "alternative medicine can be helpful in some cases," while the "bailey" is the more extreme and controversial position that "all forms of alternative medicine are effective." By retreating to the motte when challenged, the person avoids having to defend their more extreme position. But then, when the argument has died down, they return to the bailey, hoping to persuade others without providing any real evidence.
220
What is the first reason why logical reasoning not usually work as one might assume?
People stick strongly to their believes as was demonstrated in the story by Francis Bacon, they quarrelled using information from books and chronicles. Then when a logical solution was offered they were deeply offended and upset that the friar boy would go against the teachings of their fathers.
221
What is the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning? a. Deductive reasoning is based on general principles, while inductive reasoning is based on specific observations. b. Inductive reasoning is based on general principles, while deductive reasoning is based on specific observations. c. Deductive reasoning is based on specific observations, while inductive reasoning is based on general principles. d. Inductive reasoning is based on specific observations, while deductive reasoning is based on general principles.
The correct answer is a. Deductive reasoning is based on general principles, while inductive reasoning is based on specific observations. Deductive reasoning is a top-down approach that starts with general principles and moves to specific examples. Inductive reasoning is a bottom-up approach that starts with specific observations and moves to general principles.
222
Some people criticize Bill Nye the Science Guy and his educational TV show because Mr. Nye graduated with a degree in Mechanical Engineering, and has a limited scientific background. Regardless, his show maintains a high standard when teaching science. What type of argument/fallacy are Bill Nye's critics exercising?
Bill's critics are using an ad hominem argument by attacking his qualifications instead of the quality program that he produces.
223
What consequences does Pinker state can occur if individuals lack effective critical thinking ability or the means to acquire the skill?
A lack of such skills can lead to harmful outcomes, such as conspiracy theories, pseudoscience, and political polarization
224
In his article "Logic and Critical Thinking", Steven Pinker argues that critical thinking is a set of skills that can be learned and improved through practice and education.
True.
225
What is the main difference between formal and informal fallacies, as discussed by Pinker in the paper?
The main difference between formal and informal fallacies, as discussed by Pinker in the paper, is that formal fallacies violate the rules of deductive logic, while informal fallacies involve errors in reasoning that are not necessarily related to deductive logic.
226
What is the difference between "motte" and "bailey" in the motte-and-bailey fallacy?
The "motte" is a strong, easy-to-defend position, while the "bailey" is a weaker, more controversial position.
227
According to Pinker (2021), the real world example of the discovery of carcinogenicity of tobacco smoke and the consequent rejection of the smoking-cancer link by tobacco companies due to it being "Nazi Science" is an example of what?
The ad hominem fallacy and the genetic fallacy.
228
The ________ fallacy occurs when someone attacks a person instead of their claim.
Ad hominem.
229
How does Pinker explain the cultural and cognitive biases that often hinder rational thinking?
Pinker suggests that cultural and cognitive biases often hinder rational thinking by leading people to rely on intuition, emotion, and personal experience rather than evidence and logic. He also notes that people tend to be more skeptical of information that conflicts with their preexisting beliefs and values, and that they often overestimate the extent to which they understand complex systems and phenomena.
230
Imagine that you are a bouncer at a nightclub, and you need to check the IDs of people who want to enter. Your boss tells you that there are two rules you need to follow: • Anyone who is over 18 years old is allowed to enter. • Anyone who is not wearing a hat is not allowed to enter. One night, two people approach the entrance: Person X and Person Y. Person X is wearing a hat and is over 18 years old, while Person Y is not wearing a hat and is under 18 years old. Who should you allow to enter? A) Person X and Person Y B) only Person X C) only Person Y or D) neither of them?
B – only Person X meets the first rule, and does not break the second rule (and is therefore allowed to enter the nightclub)
231
According to Pinker 2021, What is a valid inference?
Little algorithms that allow you to leap from true premises to a true conclusion.
232
What are some common cognitive biases that can affect critical thinking, and how can they be overcome?
Confirmation bias, availability bias, and anchoring bias. These biases can be overcome by actively seeking out contrary evidence, being aware of one's own biases, and using decision-making tools like decision matrices.
233
What are the three reasons why logical reasoning is not the main form of reasoning?
Empirical Truths, Ecological Rationality, Family Resemblance Categories.
234
What is the difference between a formal logical fallacy and an informal logical fallacy?
A formal logical fallacy is an error in the structure or form of an argument whereas an informal fallacy is an error in the content of the argument that does not violate formal rules of logic
235
what is only way to rectify the reasonings?
make them as tangible as those of the Mathematicians so that we can find our error at a glance
236
True or false, Confirmation bias: The tendency to seek out and interpret information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.
TRUE
237
True or false: Evaluating the credibility and reliability of the source is NOT an essential part of critical thinking.
False. This is cause evaluating sources is an important principle of critical thinking.
238
What are formal fallacies?
Formal fallacies are errors in reasoning that occur due to a misapplication of the rules of logic, often leading to invalid conclusions.
239
In a truth table, what does ‘exclusive or’ mean?
P or Q but not [P and Q]
240
Judgment of true and false: Deductive Reasoning - This type of reasoning is used to conclude from premises known to be true.
True. Deductive reasoning usually involves moving from a general premise to a specific conclusion. For example, a deductive argument might read: All men are bound to die (premise), and Socrates is a man (premise). Therefore, Socrates is subject to death (conclusion)
241
Psychologists often debate about “Nature versus Nurture”. What is wrong with this debate?
It depicts a false dichotomy (or false dilemma). This suggests that the answer is either one or the other. However, our behaviour is not influenced solely by nature, or solely by nurture. We are a wonderful mix of many factors!
242
What is an example of false dichotomy?
"Either we cut funding for public healthcare, or we raise taxes". False dichotomy suggests there are only two solutions or paths available to solve a problem, resulting in black and white thinking. This will not account for other possible alternatives.
243
What does a Rational argumentation consist of?
• Common ground of premises that everyone accepts as true • Conditional statements that everyone agrees makes one proposition follow on from another • Cycling of the valid rules of inference that yield only the logical implications of the premises
244
Fill in the blank: ______ fallacies are errors in deductive reasoning that arise from a flaw in the logical structure of an argument. Examples of these include affirming the consequent, denying the antecedent, and equivocation.
Formal fallacies are errors in deductive reasoning that arise from a flaw in the logical structure of an argument. Examples of these include affirming the consequent, denying the antecedent, and equivocation.
245
The statement "If you're not with me, you're against me" is an example of which informal logical fallacy?
False Dichotomy
246
True or false, Inductive reasoning: The process of generalizing from specific instances to a broader conclusion or theory, such that the conclusion is probably but not necessarily true.
TRUE
247
Fill in the blank: The _____ fallacy involves attacking the characteristics of the person making the argument rather than the argument itself.
Ad hominem.
248
Why should we bother with formal logic and whether arguments are valid or invalid?
It is a useful way of breaking down arguments into simpler smaller sections. By deconstructing arguments into premises and conditionals, it makes it easier to spot assumptions and fallacies that might be present and might be making the argument incorrect.
249
In his chapter on logic and critical thinking, Pinker argues that the ability to reason well is enhanced by knowledge of these skills. How does he suggest that people can improve their ability to reason well?
Pinker suggests several ways that people can improve their ability to reason well. He recommends studying logic and critical thinking, practicing applying these skills to real-world situations, being open to changing one's mind in light of new evidence, and seeking out diverse perspectives and information sources.
250
What does Pinker define logic as?
Pinker defines logic as the study of valid reasoning and explores how it can be used to draw accurate conclusions from premises.
251
Evaluating an idea not by its truth but by its origins is called the ______ fallacy.
Genetic
252
Why is logical called 'formal'?
Logic is called "formal" because it deals not with the contents of statements, but with their forms (i.e., the way they are assembled out of subjects, predicates, and logical words).
253
True or False: According to Steven Pinker, logic and critical thinking are innate human abilities.
False. Pinker argues that logic and critical thinking are not innate human abilities, but rather they are skills that must be learned and practiced.
254
What are tautologies?
Statements inherently true due to their logical structure, e.g., it is what it is - restating the same idea. They provide no new information
255
Human cognition (and categorization more specifically) can be described as working (more or less) by following the rules usually found in classical formal logic.
True or False? False. Categorization is not implemented as a chain of logical rules, but by pattern association.
256
What constitutes rational argumentation?
A common ground of premises that everyone accepts as true, together with conditional statements that everyone agrees make one proposition follow from another, and then cranking through valid rules of inference that yield the logical, and only the logical,implications of the premises.
257
Fill in the blank: _______ _____ is a type of logic that deals with concepts such as permission, obligation, and duty
Deontic logic is a type of logic that deals with concepts such as permission, obligation, and duty
258
The informal fallacy of assuming in your argument what it is you are trying to prove is referred to as?
Begging the question
