Class 13: High Stakes Decision Making Flashcards
1
Q
What is our impression of the world a result of?
A
Our impression of the world results from an interpretive process and depends on our attention, prior beliefs, expectations, experience and knowledge.
2
Q
How can cognitive biases affect forensic analysis?
A
Cognitive biases can affect forensic analysis by influencing the interpretation of evidence and leading to errors or inaccuracies in forensic conclusions. Biases such as confirmation bias and contextual bias can impact decision-making and the evaluation of evidence.
3
Q
fill in the blank: ______ can lead forensic practitioners to make mistakes and even reverse decisions.
A
contextual information
4
Q
True or False: Anchoring bias is a cognitive bias where an individual relies too heavily on the initial piece of information (anchor) presented to them when making judgments or decisions. This bias tends to influence subsequent assessments, even when additional data may be available.
A
TRUE
5
Q
What type of thinking is at high risk of introducing bias and resulting in incorrect conclusions?
A
Type 1 thinking.
6
Q
How can cognitive science contribute to the evaluation of eyewitness testimony in forensic investigations?
A
Cognitive science contributes to the evaluation of eyewitness testimony by providing insights into the factors that can influence memory recall and the presence of cognitive biases. By understanding these influences, forensic practitioners can assess the reliability of eyewitness accounts more effectively and account for potential inaccuracies or distortions.
7
Q
How does Edmond et al. (2017) propose group decision-making can be improved in the forensic sciences?
A
Group decision-making in forensic sciences can be improved by designing intelligent processes for collective decisions. This includes aggregating the independent responses of many individuals to produce a more accurate decision, a phenomenon known as the Wisdom of Crowds. They also suggest that technological advances can facilitate the aggregation of individual examiner responses, thereby improving accuracy.
8
Q
What cognitive error do jurors tend to make?
A
The is evidence to suggest that jurors will fail to consider alternative explanations for events unless they are made explicit. People tend to seek evidence that supports their working hypothesis, and neglect information that is inconsistent with it
9
Q
True or False: Understanding human memory processes is essential for forensic practitioners to assess the reliability of eyewitness testimonies.
A
TRUE
10
Q
According to Edmond et al. (2017), what is one potential cognitive bias that forensic practitioners may face in their work? A) Confirmation bias. B) Sampling bias. C) Observer bias. D) Survivorship bias.
A
A) Confirmation bias.
11
Q
What is an attentional cognitive bias
A
Paying greater attention to behaviors that evoke an emotional response
12
Q
True or false: Anchoring bias refers to the tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions.
A
TRUE
13
Q
Judging true or false: Confirmation bias, availability bias and anchoring bias affect forensic practitioners’ decision-making
A
TRUE
14
Q
Since the release of the Institute of Medicine report ‘‘To Err is Human’’ in 1999.Patient safety has been focused, which includes the contributes of _____ and resultant cognitive errors on patient safety.
A
cognitive bias
15
Q
True or false? Our impression of the world is the result of an interpretive process, and depends on our attention, prior beliefs, expectations, experiences and knowledge
A
TRUE
16
Q
True or False - providing the same scenarios and then asking novices and experts to rate their courses of action and why has dramatically helped novices in trying to understand how an expert does the task.
A
TRUE
17
Q
Can we trust our long term memory?
A
No, Memories decay over time according to a logarithmic function, and they are frequently updated, altered and reconstructed based on new experiences, information and beliefs.
18
Q
What does Naturalistic Decision Making (NDM) refer to?
A
Naturalistic Decision Making refers to the process of decision-making in real-world, complex, and dynamic situations where individuals rely on their expertise and intuition to make judgments and choices.
19
Q
What are three things that scientists have recommended for the forensic sciences?
A
- The need to engage in formal evaluation 2. to attend to human factors and 3. present written and verbal evidence in ways that both fairly represent the results and facilitate comprehension
20
Q
In the article by Hughes et al, one proposed strategy to mitigate cognitive biases is to implement mindfulness practice among multidisciplinary teams. In particular, this strategy targets the ____ bias.
A
correspondence
21
Q
What are the first three mentioned strategies that Croskerry et al. proposed to implement that are specific to the workplace to balance out fast and automatic thinking?
A
Structured data acquisition, deliberate decoupling, and reflection on initial assessment.
22
Q
How can surgeons recognize and mitigate cognitive bias in their decision-making?
A
Surgeons can recognize cognitive bias by being aware of the common types of bias that affect their reasoning, by seeking feedback from peers and patients, by using checklists and algorithms to guide their decisions, and by engaging in reflective practice and debriefing. Surgeons can mitigate cognitive bias by slowing down their thinking when possible, by considering alternative hypotheses and explanations, by seeking more information and evidence, by involving multidisciplinary teams and shared decision-making, and by fostering a culture of safety and learning .
23
Q
How can recognizing heuristics and biases in clinical decision-making contribute to patient care?
A
Recognizing heuristics and biases can lead to more accurate diagnoses, better treatment decisions, and improved patient outcomes.
24
Q
True or False: Incorporating knowledge from psychology and cognitive science into forensic practices can help practitioners improve their performance, mitigate risks, and reduce errors.
A
TRUE
25
True or false – In a study by Dror, Charlton and Peron, fingerprint examiners unwittingly found fingerprints did not match that they themselves had found did match on a prior occasion
True – the authors presented the fingerprints in a way that suggested they did not match, and four out of the five fingerprint experts contradicted previous decisions they made that the fingerprints actually did match
26
Define anchoring bias
Where reasoning and ultimate decisions are based on the first piece of information we are given disregarding subsequent information.
27
Is type 1 or type 2 thinking the most susceptible to reliance on heuristics and introduction of cognitive bias?
Type 1
28
True of False: When type 1 reasoning leads to an incorrect conclusion, it is unlikely to be identified and corrected.
TRUE
29
T/F: Courts maintain a strong confidence in trial safeguards operated by lawyers and judges.
TRUE
30
How does ShadowBox work?
It helps people to see the world through the eyes of experts. It does this by placing trainees in complex scenarios where decicion points are inserted throughout and the the trainee has to make a choice. They are then later able to compare their answers with the answers of masters of that chosen domain so they can see where they went wrong and how to improve based on what experts in the field do.
31
What are some examples of professions that might require workers to make high-stakes decisions?
The practice of medicine, air traffic control, and managing nuclear power stations are examples of activities confronted with serious risks that have benefitted from the integration of cognitive science (knowledge and studies) into standard organisation, procedures, and practice.
32
The legacy of engaging with the insights of experimental psychology is to enhance the ability to provide __________ evidence that is demonstrably reliable.
Answer: impartial
33
What is the relationship between feedback and perceptual learning?
Feedback plays a crucial role in perceptual learning, which involves improving an individual's sensitivity to stimuli. In the context of forensic science, feedback training has been shown to increase accuracy in tasks such as unfamiliar face matching. Generalisation of learning is more likely when the training set includes high variability.
34
What cognitive bias does Hughes et al describe here: "When we base our reasoning and ultimate decisions on the first piece of information that we are offered, irrespective of subsequent data that may be presented."
Anchoring
35
How can contextual bias be reduced in the context of the forensics example?
sequential unmasking, blind analytic procedures.
36
True or False: Availability Bias and Availability Heuristic are the same.
False: Availability Bias refers to using recent or similar experiences to explain a current experience, while Availability Heuristic refers to judging the frequency or probability of something based on the ease in which examples come to mind.
37
What is Confidence Hardening?
When after a period of time, eyewitnesses become more confident and certain in their judgments.
38
True or False: Once something has been encoded to long-term memory, it stays there forever.
False. Memories decay over time by a logarithmic function and they are fre- quently updated, altered and reconstructed based on new experiences, information and beliefs.
39
What is confidence hardening?
Confidence hardening is where confidence in a decision tends to increase over time, especially if the person who made the decision receives some sort of confirmation.
40
What is the issue mentioned in Endmond et al., (2017) when experts provide reasons for the decision they made.
Experts are very likely to provide those reasons retrospectively (retrospective rationalizations), meaning that they are in fact still unaware of how they actually made the decision.
41
How can cognitive science help improve the accuracy and reliability of forensic analysis?
Cognitive science helps improve forensic analysis by providing insights into perception, attention, and memory processes, reducing errors in evidence interpretation, assessing eyewitness testimony, and mitigating cognitive biases.
42
What is the significance of naturalistic decision making in decision processes?
Naturalistic decision making focuses on understanding how decisions are made in complex and dynamic real-world situations.
43
True/False Forensic scientists should rely on memory and impressions rather than documentation and empirical information.
FALSE
44
Heuristics and bias in clinical decision-making refer to what?
Heuristics and bias in clinical decision-making refer to the cognitive shortcuts and unconscious biases that healthcare professionals may employ, sometimes leading to errors or suboptimal outcomes in patient care. It is important for clinicians to recognize and mitigate these biases to enhance decision-making quality.
45
Confidende Heuristic Model
When evaluating experts, jurors tend to believe that confidence is a reliable indicator of an expert's accuracy and credibility, and confidence acts as heuristic cue that an expert is knowledgeable and believable
46
Fill in the blanks : expertise is generally considered ______- and ____-specific.
domain ; task
47
What is verisimilitude
the appearance of being true or real.
48
Our impression of the world is the result of an interpretive process, and depends on:_________
our attention, prior beliefs, expectations, experiences and knowledge
49
Why do surgeons mostly use type 1 thinking during their work.
Their work is often too fast paced for slow and deliberate thought.
50
what can the confirmation bias be heightened by
individuals cannot consider alternative if they do not know they exist
51
How do experts and novices differ in decision-making processes?
Experts often make decisions automatically and without conscious effort. They may not possess insight into the underlying reasons for their interpretations and may provide retrospective rationalisations that do not align with the actual decision-making process. Asking experts to explain their decision-making can even reduce their performance.
52
What can been described within potential contamination which may trigger certain heuristics in an information list? A,Extraneous data B,Redundant emphasis C,Both of these
C,Both of these
53
What is the purpose of using cognitive science in forensic practice?
To improve decision-making processes and reduce cognitive biases.
54
The study "Thinking Forensics: Cognitive Science for Forensic Practitioners" explores the application of cognitive science in the field of clinical psychology.
Answer: False
55
True or False: At least 1 cognitive type error was found to be associated with diagnostic errors in 47% of cases.
False: 74% of cases
56
What is a strategy for reducing cognitive bias in the workplace (according to Croskerry et al (2019)) as mentioned in Hughes et al (2020)? a) structured data acquisition; b)reflection on initial impressions; c) slowing down strategies; or d) all of the above
d) all of the above
57
When do courts traditionally use experience as a proxy to determine expertise within specific domains or “fields?
Although courts are reluctant in requiring information about experience, it generally occurs when there is an absence of empirical evidence of an individual’s claimed skill.
58
Define Heuristics
Reasoning that is based on previous experiences and defined by pattern recognition irrespective of the data and facts
59
What are some mentioned factors of contextual information that can alter and/or improve decision-making?
Mood, prior experiences, and peripheral information.
60
What is naturalistic decision-making according to Gary Klein in the video "Naturalistic Decision Making Intro"
It is essentially a study of how we make decisions.
61
Since the release of the Institute of Medicine report ‘‘To Err is Human’’ in 1999.People has focus on patient safety which includes the contribution of _____and resultant cognitive errors.
Cognitive bias
62
Error can occur in every stage of memory, what are there stages and a brief explanation?
Encoding (memory is affected by many factors and our perception is not exactly as they occur, this can lead to longer remembrance of unpleasant events and specific details of similar events), storage (memories decay logarithmically over time and can be altered by newer experiences, information and beliefs), retrieval (can be affected by current knowledge and feelings, other peoples account or even the way asked).
63
_________ is a term which suggests that we have no direct access to the cognitive process that determine the choices that we make, even though it feels as if we have understanding of why we ended up with those choices.
Introspection illusion
64
what stages of memory can errors occur
encoding, storage, retrieval
65
Fill out the blanks: "Surgery requires __ reasoning to rapidly synthesize a large volume of data to provide high impact and time-sensitive care, but the consequent negative implications of this type of reasoning are not often considered."
Type 1
66
According to Gary Klein, the shadowbox technique can be described as? a) seeing through the eyes of experts while working alongside them; b) seeing through the eyes of experts without the experts being there; c) seeing the world through the eyes of novices; d) fighting fire with fire
b) seeing through the eyes of experts without the experts being there
67
True or False. The human brain produces memory through three different stages, which are encoding, receiving, and retrieval.
False. The right stages are encoding, storage, and retrieval.
68
Explain in brief the term “introspection illusion”
“Introspection illusion” refers to the tendency to believe that we have direct access into our own cognitive processes, even though evidences have suggested otherwise. In this case, people may not have access to the actual basis for their decision making.
69
What is the purpose of Shadowbox?
To place non-experts in the role of an expert to train their expertise.
70
Will artificial intelligence have an impact on privacy?
Artificial intelligence requires a lot of data support, so it may have an impact on the privacy of users. However, privacy protection is an important issue. Scientists need to formulate corresponding privacy protection policies to ensure the privacy and security of users.
71
true or false: We cannot trust our memories. They are, at best, impoverished in- terpretations of reality.
TRUE
72
How does naturalistic decision making differ from traditional decision-making models?
Naturalistic decision making takes into account the context, experience, and intuition of decision-makers, whereas traditional decision-making models often rely on rational and logical approaches.
73
What is the introspective illusion?
Usually we do not have access to or know about the cognitive processes that determine the choices we make, even though it often feels like we do.
74
What does the work of Edmond et al. (2017) suggest about the relationship between extensive experience and superior performance in a task?
Edmond et al. (2017) suggest that extensive experience in a task does not necessarily translate into superior performance. They note that although courts have traditionally used experience as a measure of expertise, several studies across various fields have indicated that mere exposure to a task does not equate to expertise. In some cases, novices may even outperform experienced professionals in certain aspects of their tasks.
75
Fill in the blank: Having non-experts and experts look at a difficult scenario with several decision points and compare rationales is a technique known as ________
Shadowbox
76
Cognitive Science for Forensic Practitioners involves what?
Cognitive Science for Forensic Practitioners involves the application of knowledge and research from cognitive science to improve the investigative processes and decision-making abilities of forensic practitioners. By understanding how the mind works and utilizing cognitive techniques, forensic practitioners can enhance their expertise and contribute to more effective and accurate forensic investigations.
77
What is the main focus of the study "Recognizing Heuristics and Bias in Clinical Decision-Making"?
The study aims to understand the role of heuristics and bias in clinical decision-making.
78
What are the two cognitive biases or heuristics in surgical decision-making, and how do they impact clinical reasoning.
The first is the anchoring heuristic, which occurs when reasoning and decisions are based on the first piece of information received, regardless of subsequent data. The second is Availability heuristic, which refers to using the most recent, or vivid experience to define a current situation. These biases impact clinical reasoning because they influence how information is interpreted, potentially leading to incorrect conclusions.
79
It's tempting to think the comparing unfamiliar images which involves an explicit and deliberative perceptual process.For example finger prints and impressions,is that true or false?
TRUE
80
True or False? Simply knowing about the existence of perceptual distortions in everyday life prevents the perceiver from experiencing them.
False. It does not prevent the perceiver from experiencing them.
81
Why can’t we always trust memories?
Memories are prone to errors at various stages. For example, mistakes can happen when the information is initially processed as we do not perceive things exactly as they occur.
82
What are some examples of heuristics and bias that can affect surgical decision-making?
Heuristics are mental shortcuts based on past experiences that help us make quick decisions. Bias are errors in judgment that result from heuristics. Some common heuristics and bias in surgical decision-making are overconfidence, confirmation bias, anchoring bias, availability bias, and framing effects.
83
The article "Thinking forensics: Cognitive science for forensic practitioners". What 2 terms are used to describe "expertise and why?
Expertise, therefore, is often described as “domain”- and “task-specific”. This is because superior performance in a particular domain does not guarantee superior performance in another, even when the domains seem similar. An expert in human anatomy, for example, may not have expertise in comparing human faces or bodies for purposes of identification.
84
What is an expert?
An expert is someone who has demonstrated superior performance relative to the performance of a novice.
85
What is the unique challenge of surgical care
Surgical care in unique because surgeons must make rapid decisive clinical decisions, thus they are acclimiated to fast and quick thinking. THis type of decision making is critical to their success and for the patients
86
What are the potential benefits of incorporating cognitive science into forensic practice?
Incorporating cognitive science into forensic practice can enhance the accuracy of analysis, minimize cognitive biases, improve witness identification, and enhance the training and decision-making abilities of forensic practitioners.
87
___________, also known as analytic reasoning, is a more deliberate and reflective thinking process. It involves a systematic evaluation of data, facts, and logical analysis. It is more reliable and less prone to biases but can be time and resource-intensive.
Type II reasoning
88
Define Attentional in relation to cognitive bias
Greater attention to behaviors that evoke an emotional response
89
What are the stages of memory where errors can occur?
'- Encoding which is during the event such that individuals are prone to overestimation of duration with unpleasant events, and specific details of repeated events are difficult to remember. - Storage which is while the event is stored in long-term memory due to memories decaying over time as well as being updated, altered and reconstructed based on new experiences, information and belief. - Retrieval which is when the memory is recalled at a time later can be affected by current knowledge, feelings and someone else's account of a shared event.
90
True/False Human memory often fails without awareness.
TRUE
91
Explain anchoring.
Excessively relying on one piece of information, usually the first piece of data seen.
92
What does the article suggest regarding the role of bias in clinical decision-making?
The article suggests that bias can influence the quality and objectivity of medical decisions.
93
What are heuristics in clinical decision-making?
Heuristics are a rule of thumb or mental shortcuts that is used by clinicians to simplify decision-making processes, this is often based on their previous experience or available information.
94
How does contextual information alter decisions in the criminal justice system example from Edmond et al. 2017?
If exposed to information such as facts about the crime or information of the suspects while still evaluating evidence this can cause a practitioner to for a belief about the suspect or out of the analysis being done. This can cause them to seek out information that fits with their belief and pay less attention to other information.
95
Name three fundamental concepts or domains investigated by cognitive science that should inform forensic practitioners
Three of these : human perception, memory, context information, definition of expertise, decision making, communication, experience, confidence, feedback
96
Can asking experts how they arrive at a decision reduce performance?
Yes.
97
Fill in the blank: In the article by Edmond et al. (2017) the best method of avoiding both ________ bias and ________ of evidence is for experts to explicitly present the propositions that were considered, and explain how and why the evidence does or does not support each.
In the article by Edmond et al. (2017) the best method of avoiding both __confirmation__ bias and __misattribution__ of evidence is for experts to explicitly present the propositions that were considered, and explain how and why the evidence does or does not support each.
98
What is the challenge of naturalistic decision-making?
To tap into expert professional knowledge
99
How many percent of the participants reported seeing a word that had not been presented in Roediger and McDermott study?
40 percent
100
TRUE/FALSE: Errors in memory can only occur during the encoding (during the event) and storage (while the event is being stored in long-term memory) stages
FALSE: Research has shown that memory errors can, and often do occur in any of the three stages of memory, including encoding, storage, and when the memory is recalled at a later time (retrieval).
101
Which of the following best describes the focus of the article "Thinking forensics: Cognitive science for forensic practitioners"? A) The impact of cognitive biases on forensic investigations. B) The history of forensic science and its development. C) Techniques for crime scene investigation and evidence collection. D) The role of technology in forensic analysis.
A) The impact of cognitive biases on forensic investigations.
102
Will artificial intelligence replace human beings?
Artificial intelligence can indeed replace some repetitive and monotonous work, but artificial intelligence cannot replace human creativity, imagination and emotion. Artificial intelligence and human beings should cooperate with each other and give full play to their respective advantages.
103
Describe some mitigation strategies for anchoring bias.
'- Military Application > Reframing problems to counteract poor adjustment to newer information and considering alternative exercises. - Courts and Legal Sentencing > Adjustment of a legal sentencing process to avoid judgements anchored to written guidelines for individual cases.
104
In Roediger and McDermott' study (1995) on the fallibility of memory, what percentage of participants reported seeing a word that had not been presented?
40%
105
True or False: Surgeons are less susceptible to cognitive bias in decision-making compared to other healthcare professionals.
False The article highlights that surgical decision-making, which often requires quick and decisive actions, is particularly susceptible to cognitive bias. Surgeons, due to their training and reliance on fast thinking, are prone to introducing bias in their reasoning process.
106
What is the intended impact of Edmon et al. (2016)
To help forensic practitioners familiarise themselves with relevant research to encourage considering how procedures, practices, and evidentiary products might be improved
107
Eyewitness testimony research has shown that the confidence-accuracy relationship is slightly stronger when confidence is assessed at the same time as the identification, As time passes, eyewitnesses often become more certain and confident in their judgment,
Confidence hardening
108
In the paper "Thinking forensics: Cognitive science for forensic practitioners" by Edmond et al., which of the following is NOT discussed as a potential solution for reducing cognitive biases in forensic practice? A) Increasing the use of automation and artificial intelligence in forensic analysis B) Implementing structured decision-making protocols and checklists C) Providing comprehensive training on cognitive biases and heuristics D) Promoting interdisciplinary collaboration between forensic practitioners and cognitive scientists
A) Increasing the use of automation and artificial intelligence in forensic analysis
109
True / False: Confidence is a reliable indicator of an expert's accuracy and credibility.
FALSE
110
True or False: Surgical care often requires type I reasoning to rapidly synthesise a large volume of data.
TRUE
111
What is the aim of Edmond & Collegues 2017 article "Thinking forensics: Cognitive science for forensic practitioners"?
to sensitise forensic practitioners to a range of potentially significant issues, and encourage them to engage with research in these domains so that they may adapt procedures to improve performance, mitigate risks and reduce errors.
112
What is the concept called when you try to view a scenario through the eyes of an expert without the expert being there?
Shadow box
113
What is the term used to describe the bias that can be introduced in surgical decision-making due to reliance on fast-thinking and heuristics?
Cognitive Bias
114
Do we keep things in our long-term memory indefinitely
No, Memories decay over time according to a logarithmic function
115
Explain correspondence bias.
Attributing personal behaviour to flaws in someone's character rather than situational or environmental context.
116
Is expertise transferable across different domains or similar tasks?
No, expertise in a particular domain does not guarantee expertise in another domain, even if the domains appear similar. Proficiency in one task does not necessarily transfer to other seemingly similar tasks. Expertise is often described as "domain" and "task-specific."
117
What experiment demonstrates the fallibility of memory?
Roediger and McDermott's experiment.
118
True or false: Medical experts such as surgeons do not encounter cognitive biases in their daily practice.
False.
119
True or False: Cognitive biases such as anchoring and availability bias have been extensively studied and addressed in surgical decision-making.
False The article states that while over 100 cognitive biases have been described in cognitive psychology, only certain biases have been explored in healthcare decision-making. Anchoring and availability bias are two examples mentioned, but the majority of research on heuristics and cognitive bias in healthcare is based on hypothetical patient scenarios rather than actual medical decision-making. Thus, there is still a need for further understanding and intervention in surgical decision-making regarding cognitive biases.
120
What is the aim of the shadowbox technique?
To train people to see a given scenario through the eyes of experts.
121
Edmond et al. (2017) suggests that incorporating cognitive science into forensic practice can: A) Eliminate all biases from forensic investigations. B) Provide a foolproof method for solving crimes. C) Enhance the objectivity and accuracy of forensic analysis. D) Replace human judgment with automated systems.
C) Enhance the objectivity and accuracy of forensic analysis.
122
Can memories be altered, updated and changed as time goes on and new experiences are made?
Yes
123
What is the relevance of cognitive science in forensic practice?
Cognitive science is highly relevant to forensic practice as it helps us to understand how people remember, perceive, and interpret information, which can impact forensic decision-making, witness statements, and evidence evaluation.
124
Why is it important for surgeons to be aware of their bias when writing reports about patients?
If they aren't aware of their bias when writing they could negatively impact a future surgeon's view of the patient.
125
True or False: Anchoring bias is a cognitive bias where an individual relies too heavily on the initial piece of information (anchor) presented to them when making judgments or decisions. This bias tends to influence subsequent assessments, even when additional data may be available.
TRUE
126
What strategies are proposed in the text to reduce cognitive bias in surgical decision-making?
Structured data acquisition, deliberate decoupling, and reflection on initial impressions
127
How does fast-thinking in surgical decision-making contribute to the introduction of bias?
Fast-thinking is susceptible to heuristics and cognitive biases due to its reliance on previous experiences and pattern recognition, which can lead to incorrect conclusions.
128
Artificial intelligence requires a lot of data support, so it may have an impact on the privacy of users. However, privacy protection is an important issue. Scientists need to formulate corresponding privacy protection policies to ensure the privacy and security of users.
The future development direction of artificial intelligence includes independent learning, independent decision-making, man-computer collaboration, deep learning, etc. In the future, artificial intelligence will be more intelligent and humanised, bringing more convenience and welfare to human beings.
129
True or False: Cognitive workload refers to the mental demands placed on forensic practitioners during their investigative work.
TRUE
130
Where has the research been largely focused on for recognising cognitive errors, and what research opportunities are there?
Research has largely been focused largely on diagnostics and patient safety, Significantly less work has focused on the effect on treatment decision-making and even less is known about the downstream effects on patient outcomes
131
Why is it problematic when forensic practitioners are exposed to extraneous information while evaluating evidence?
Confirmation bias and the influence of initial beliefs can impact the outcome of the evidence evaluation.
132
Fill in the blank : The _ training uses scenario-based instruction to train novices in the perceptual and cognitive skills of experts in their domain.
ShadowBox
133
In the paper "Thinking forensics: Cognitive science for forensic practitioners," what is the role of cognitive science in improving the practice of forensic science?
Cognitive science can contribute to the improvement of forensic science by providing insights into human cognition, decision-making processes, and potential sources of bias. It can help identify and mitigate cognitive biases and develop evidence-based methods and procedures for forensic practitioners.
134
According to Hughes 2020 "Recognizing heuristics and bias in clinical decision-making", what are the 2 types of reasoning?
Type 1 reasoning is intuitive, fast, usually effective but more likely to fail than type 2 reasoning, which is analytic, reliable, and safe but also time and resource intense.
135
Is the perception of reality detached from prior experience or memories?
Research is shaped by prior experience, for example, forensic practitioners analysing fingerprints
136
What are the three cognitive bias that is often representative in the clinical context?
Attentional, anchoring and correspondence bias
137
True or False: The application of cognitive science can improve the accuracy and reliability of forensic investigations and expert testimony.
TRUE
138
What is correspondence bias?
Explanation of personal behavior to flaws of character rather than situational constraintsor influence.
139
What is type I reasoning, and why is it important in surgical care?
Type I reasoning is fast, intuitive, and prone to bias. It is important in surgical care as it enables quick synthesis of a large volume of data to provide time-sensitive care.
140
What is the role of heuristics in srugical decision making
Heuristics may lead to medical errors, especially in situations of uncertainty but also represent adaptive strategy ingrained in all surgeons
141
True/False Memory errors can occur during encoding, storage, and retrieval stages.
TRUE
142
Instead of relying on an expert’s displayed confidence in his/her conclusions, what should judges rely on to assess accuracy of those conclusions, according to Kahneman and Klein (2009)?
The degree of validity of the environment in which the expert was trained and made his decisions should be used as an alternative proxy to assess the accuracy of their judgements.
143
What are the three stages of memory, all of which errors can occur in?
1. Encoding 2. Storage 3. Retrieval
144
How does knowledge of the existence of perceptual distortions affect the perceiver from experiencing them?
Simply knowing about their existence does not prevent them from happening.
145
How can cognitive load impact the performance of forensic practitioners?
Cognitive load refers to the mental effort required to process information. High cognitive load can impair the performance of forensic practitioners by reducing their attention, memory capacity, and decision-making abilities, potentially leading to errors in forensic analysis.
146
how can the biases affect clinical decision-making?
it can lead to errors in clinical decision-making by influencing how clinicians make decisions, interpret information and allocate resources. For example, confirmation bias, anchoring bias and availability bias.
147
Question: What is the most common cause of wrongful convictions according to the Innocence Project?
Answer: The most common cause of wrongful convictions according to the Innocence Project is failures of eyewitness memory. This can include misidentification, faulty lineup procedures, and other factors that can lead to mistaken identifications.
148
________________also known as analytic reasoning, is a more deliberate and reflective thinking process. It involves a systematic evaluation of data, facts, and logical analysis. It is more reliable and less prone to biases but can be time and resource-intensive.
Type II reasoning
149
What is the introspection illusion?
The illusion that we have access to cognitive processes that determine the choices we make, even though we do not.
150
What should forensic scientists rely on rather than impressions and memory?
Forensic scientists should rely on documentation and empirical information.
151
True or False Our impression of the world is the result of an interpretive process, and depends on our attention, prior beliefs, expectations, experiences and knowledge
TRUE
152
How does human perception differ from a video camera?
Human perception does not operate like a video camera. We do not experience a literal reproduction of the world. Our impression of the world is the result of an interpretive process and depends on our attention, prior beliefs, expectations, experiences, and knowledge.
153
According to the paper "Recognizing Heuristics and Bias in Clinical Decision-making," what are some common heuristics that can lead to biased clinical decision-making?
Some common heuristics that can lead to biased clinical decision-making include availability heuristic, representativeness heuristic, and anchoring and adjustment heuristic.
154
What is the potential impact of cognitive biases on patient care and outcomes in healthcare settings?
Cognitive biases, which can often be introduced in heuristic or type I reasoning, pose a potential threat to healthcare quality and patient outcomes. They can lead to incorrect conclusions and decisions that may not be in the best interest of the patient. They may also impact the perception of a patient by healthcare providers, which can affect the quality of care provided.
155
Describe Availability bias
Where the most recent or vivid similar experience is used to define the current experience without considering all aspects.
156
What potential impact can heuristics have on clinical decision-making?
They can introduce biases and lead to errors in judgment.
157
True or false: Correspondence bias is the tendency to attribute people's actions to internal characteristics rather than considering situational factors.
TRUE
158
What are some cognitive biases that can affect forensic practitioners?
Confirmation bias, hindsight bias, and contextual bias.
159
In the paper "Thinking forensics: Cognitive science for forensic practitioners," what are some examples of cognitive biases that may impact forensic decision-making?
Examples of cognitive biases that may impact forensic decision-making include confirmation bias, anchoring bias, and contextual bias.
160
True or False: Experts are those who consistently produce superior performance compared to laypersons, whereas expertise refers to the mechanisms underlying this performance.
TRUE.
161
Judging True or False:The significance of cognitive science in forensic science is that it provides valuable insights into the cognitive processes and biases that may influence the decisions of forensic practitioners, thereby improving practice and reducing the potential for error.
TRUE
162
True or false: Naturalistic decision making is the study of how people actually make decisions.
True
163
Fill in the blank: Naturalistic Decision Making is the study of _______
How people actually make decisions
164
Please name the three stages of memory discussed in Edmond et al., (2017)
1. Encoding 2. Storage 3. Retrival
165
What strategies have been proposed to reduce cognitive bias in healthcare decision-making?
Strategies include structured data acquisition, deliberate decoupling, reflection on initial impressions, slowing down strategies, and affective debiasing.
166
True or false: When individuals are aware and conscious about their cognitive limits, biases do not affect their judgments.
False, they can still influence them subconsciously.
167
False memory is existing in human's memory and been highly confidence for people to judge it as truth,is this true or false?
TRUE
168
True or False? Through training and experience, fingerprints examiners are able to discriminate between most fingerprints at a glance.
True.
169
True or False: Shadowbox is a technique that helps trainees to see the world through the eyes of experts by taking a complex scenario and inserting random points through the scenario.
Answer: False. Shadowbox is a technique that helps trainees to see the world through the eyes of experts by taking a complex scenario and inserting decision points
170
The study on the accuracy level of Australian Passport Office staff on face-matching tasks concluded that … a. Expertise is the result of experience; b. Experience does not equal expertise; c. Expertise can only be achieved after a certain period of experience
b. Experience does not equal expertise
171
Contextual information is factors that assist us in making decisions. What can these factors consist of?
Factors can include mood, prior experiences and peripheral information.
172
What are the three stages where memory errors can occur?
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval.
173
True or False: The presence of contextual information has no effect on forensic analysts' decisions.
Answer: False Explanation: Edmond et al. (2017) highlight that the presence of contextual information can influence forensic analysts' decisions, as it may lead them to unconsciously adjust their judgments to align with the contextual information provided, potentially introducing biases in their analyses.
174
True or False: Incorporating contextual information will not help to improve forensic analysis.
False. Incorporating contextual information allows forensic practitioners to take into account the wider circumstances surrounding a case, which can help them interpret evidence more accurately and make more informed conclusions.
175
Through the last decade,the forensic sciences has begun to engage with issues relating to human cognition and bias.What is one of the most important influences has been found in the experiment? A,Cognitive sciences B,The way for presenting the information C,none of them above
A,Cognitive sciences
176
According to Edmond & Collegues 2017 article "Thinking forensics: Cognitive science for forensic practitioners" what can contexual information affect AND lead to?
Contextual information can affect the decisions we make, without our awareness. It can lead forensic practitioners to make mistakes and even reverse decisions.
177
True or False: In the attempt of making choices or decisions, the term “introspection illusion” suggests that even though it feels like we have understanding of how we came up with the choices that we make, evidences have found that we have no direct access to the cognitive process that determine those choices.
TRUE
178
Define the 'Cognitive bias'.
'Cognitive bias' refers to systematic errors or deviations from rationality in thinking or decision-making processes. It represents a tendency to think or make judgments in a way that may deviate from logical or objective reasoning.
179
What are examples of fields that have benefitted from the integration of cognitive science into their discipline?
Medicine, air traffic control, nuclear power station management.
180
Why is feedback is essential for learning?
Receiving feedback on varied and demanding examples is more likely to lead to robust learning, which generalizes to novel stimuli. Feedback helps us to learn new skills or hone existing ones by pro- viding information about the accuracy of our responses.
181
What should forensic practitioners do to mitigate the risk of memory errors?
Document thoroughly and contemporaneously.
182
what type of thinking allows surgeons to use short cuts based on previous ‘‘similar" experiences (ie, pattern recognition).
Type 1 thinking
183
What are some strategies that can help manage the influence of contextual information on decision-making in the forensic sciences?
Procedural mechanisms can be implemented to manage the influence of contextual information. Examples include sequential unmasking at a case or discipline level and the introduction of blind analytic procedures. These methods help minimise the problem of contextual bias. By preventing forensic practitioners from being exposed to domain irrelevant or extraneous information before evaluating evidence, the impact of contextual bias can be reduced.
184
Why is feedback essential for learning?
'- Provides information about the accuracy of their decisions - Aids in learning in a variety of situations, including learning to interpret complex visual patterns - Allows for more robust learning which can be generalised to novel stimuli - Learn new skills or hone in on existing ones based on the accuracy of their response
185
True or false - Is it possible to clear all bias in helping a patient when you are a surgeon because you are a high educated person.
False - can never wipe them all however, can know they exist and measure them to be aware of there effect.
186
True or False: Sequential unmasking is a technique to reduce cognitive bias in forensic examinations.
Answer: True Explanation: According to Edmond et al. (2017), sequential unmasking is a technique designed to minimize cognitive biases, including confirmation bias, by ensuring that experts only receive non-case-related information in stages as it becomes necessary for their analysis.
187
One of the most important influences on the forensic sciences has been the recognition that research in __________. has serious implications for the organization, production, reporting, and evaluation of forensic science evidence.
Experimental Psychology
188
Please describe one method to improve decision making skills within professions.
Shadow boxing - to give participants rainees complex scenarios and decision points/pathways, and ask the participant to rank them and explain why.
189
Why is it important to recognize heuristics and bias in clinical decision-making?
Recognizing them can help improve decision-making accuracy and patient outcomes.
190
Does experience necessarily equate to expertise?
No, it is not clear that higher levels of professional experience necessarily equate to higher levels of accuracy.
191
What are some future directions suggested by the authors for integrating cognitive science into forensic practice?
The authors do suggest that a need to develop standard protocols for forensics is needed such as training and studies to evaluate cognitive techniques
192
true/false: confidence predicts accuracy
FALSE
193
Explain attentional cognitive bias.
Paying more attention to behaviour that evokes an emotional response.
194
true/false: Knowing about the existence of perceptual distortions does not prevent the perceiver from experiencing them.
TRUE
195
One common cognitive bias in clinical decision-making is the tendency to rely on mental ______________ rather than objective evidence.
heuristics
196
Memories are fixed and will never change til we need to retrieve them, TRUE or FALSE?
FALSE! they decay over time, and can be altered by our experiences!
197
Psychologists have studied human memory since the late nineteenth century and have found that memory errors can, and often do, occur in any of the three stages of memory. What are those three stages?
Errors can occur during the event (encoding), while the event is stored in long-term memory (storage), and when the memory is recalled at a later time (retrieval).
198
What are the potential benefits of integrating cognitive science into forensic practice?
Enhanced accuracy, increased transparency, and improved credibility of forensic evidence.
199
True or False: Type I reasoning, characterized by fast and intuitive thinking, is less likely to result in incorrect conclusions compared to Type II reasoning.
False Although Type I reasoning is fast and often accurate, it is at high risk of introducing bias and reaching incorrect conclusions. Type II reasoning, characterized by analytic and reliable thinking, is considered to be more accurate and less prone to bias.
200
Define Cognitive Bias
Cognitive bias is a systematic error in thought process because of the tendency of the human brain to simplify information processing influenced by personal experience and preferences, this can affect the decisions and judgment of the person.
201
T or F: According to the research on cognitive science for forensic practitioners, cognitive biases can be completely eliminated through awareness and training.
False. According to the research on cognitive science for forensic practitioners, while awareness and training can help mitigate cognitive biases, complete elimination of biases is not possible.
202
Define the ‘Cognitive bias’.
‘Cognitive bias’ refers to systematic errors or deviations from rationality in thinking or decision-making processes. It represents a tendency to think or make judgments in a way that may deviate from logical or objective reasoning.
203
Fill in the blank: In her introductory video, Laura Militello provides an overview of _________.
In her introductory video, Laura Militello provides an overview of naturalistic decision making.
204
What is the dual process theory of reasoning and how does it relate to surgical decision-making?
The dual process theory of reasoning defines two types of reasoning: type I and type II. Type I reasoning is intuitive, fast, usually effective but more likely to fail than type II reasoning, which is analytic, reliable, and safe but also time and resource intense. Surgical decision-making often relies on type I reasoning, which is susceptible to heuristics and cognitive bias.
205
True or False: Domain experts are not susceptible to confirmation bias.
Answer: False Explanation: Edmond et al. (2017) indicate that even domain experts can fall victim to confirmation bias, as they may unconsciously seek, interpret, or recall information that confirms their initial hypothesis, while disregarding evidence that contradicts it.
206
What are issues or limitations in the field of conventional decision making?
Researchers use undergraduate students in their studies, and base their experimental tasks off of things the participants have not seen before, resulting in no experience and possibly inaccurate findings
207
How do you make decisions using the rational choice model?
step 1 - identity several courses of action step 2 - establish evaluation criteria step 3 - evaluate each course of action step 4 - select the course of action with the highest score
