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AGRC1041 > chemistry of life 1,2,3 > Flashcards

chemistry of life 1,2,3 Flashcards

1
Q

atoms are

A

units of matter

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2
Q

nucleus of atoms consists of

A

neutrons and protons

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3
Q

what orbits the nucleus of atoms

A

neg charged electrons

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4
Q

in a neutral atom

A

electrons= number of protons

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5
Q

energy is

A

the ability to do work

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6
Q

potential energy

A

the energy matter stores due to its position or location

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7
Q

greater the distance electrons have from the nucleus the greater their

A

potential energy

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8
Q

shell diagram

A

2 electrons in first shell then 8 then 8

outermost shell electrons are valence electrons

atomic number is number of electrons

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9
Q

atom with complete valence shell is

A

unreactive or inert

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10
Q

cation

A

atom that loses valence electrons and become pos charged

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11
Q

anion

A

atom that gains electrons to complete valence shell and becomes neg charged

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12
Q

covalent bonds

A

2 atoms share a pair of valence electrons

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13
Q

ionic bonds

A

transfer of electrons between pos charge and neg charge form ionic bond

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14
Q

compounds which form ionic bonds are

A

salts

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15
Q

hydrogen bonds

A

weak bond

H atom attached to an EN atom by a polar covalent bond is shared with another EN atom through weak electrical attraction

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16
Q

water’s cohesive forces are due to it’s

A

H bonds with other water molecules

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17
Q

any molecule or atom that has polarity will

A

attract water molecules and thus will dissolve in water (soluble)

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18
Q

van der waal’s interactions

A

similar to H bonds but are formed from non polar molecules where “hot spots” of pos and neg may transiently occur

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19
Q

hydrophobic interactions

A

non polar molecules do not mix readily w polar water molecules

ex fats and oils

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20
Q

cohesion of water that results in surface tension is due to

A

large proportion of water molecules being H bonded to their neighbours at any time

molecules in centre of drop of liquid are equally attracted to surrounding molecules and molecules at surface are drawn into centre way from air (they would rather interact with each other than with air) which creates surface tension

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21
Q

water has a high specific heat which means

A

amount of heat which must be absorbed / lost for 1 gram of a substance to raise/ lower its temp by 1 degree C and for water this is 1 calorie

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22
Q

why does temp of water NOT change as much as many other substances

A

because with water much of energy is used to break H bonds

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23
Q

solvent, solute

A

solvent ie the water

solute ie the substance that dissolves

form a solution

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24
Q

structural isomers

A

same formula but different structure

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25
Q

cis-trans isomers

A

differ in arrangement around a double bond

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26
Q

enantiomers

A

mirror images of each other

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27
Q

4 main classes of macromolecules

A

carbs
proteins
nucleic acids
lipids

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28
Q

cabrohydrates

A
  • composed of C, H and O
  • classified into:
  • fibre
  • starch
  • complex sugars (polysaccharides)
  • simple sugars (monosaccharides)
  • most are ring structures
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29
Q

carbs for energy storage

A
  • plant cells use polysaccharides for both storage (starch) and cell structure (cellulose)
  • herbivore break down these plant polysaccharides for energy
  • animal cells use polysaccharides for storage (glycogen) which can be catabolized through glycogenolysis to yield energy
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30
Q

proteins perform all essential functions for cells to stay alive including

A
  • catalysis
  • signalling
  • structure
  • energy/ gradient generation
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31
Q

essential vs non essential amino acids

A

essential need to be in diet, body cannot synthesize by itself

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32
Q

polypeptide chain

A

2 amino acids positioned so COOH group of one lines with amino group of other

dehydration rxn; peptide bond is formed between carbon and nitrogen

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33
Q

amino acid properties are from their various

A

side chains (R groups)

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34
Q

protein shape

A
  • final shape important
  • function of protein
  • exposes binding sites
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35
Q

nucleic acids are

A

info carrying molecules

DNA –> RNA via transcription –> protein via translation

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36
Q

nucleic acids made up of

A
  • high energy triphosphate
  • sugar; either deoxyribose or ribose
  • base; adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine or uracil
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37
Q

A and T
C and G

A

pair through H bonds
A and T 2
C and G 3

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38
Q

are lipids soluble

A

no

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39
Q

lipid functions

A

crucial part of cell membranes
cell signalling
key energy storage reserve

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40
Q

most important lipids

A

fats, phospholipids, steroids

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41
Q

fats vs oil

A

solid vs liquid lipids

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42
Q

triglyceride consist of

A

glycerol backbone and 3 FA molecules

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43
Q

saturated vs unsaturated fats

A

saturated with H bonds ie no double bonds

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44
Q

essential fatty acids

A
  • not synthesized by body
  • necessary to prevent pathological conditions
  • important in growth phase of children
  • may protect against cardiovascular disease in adults
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45
Q

phospholipids make up all animal

A

cell membranes

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46
Q

how do phospholipids differ from fats

A

only 2 FAs bound to glycerol backbone, third carbon bound to a phosphate group

hydrophilic head; water soluble
hydrophobic tails

naturally form bilayers in water

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47
Q

cholesterol made where

A

liver

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48
Q

is cholesterol absorbed well in diet

A

no

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49
Q

where is cholesterol often found

A

in many animal cell membranes; influences membrane fluidity

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50
Q

what is the precursor molecule of all steroids

A

cholesterol

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51
Q

anabolism

A

energy is stored in cells or used to help build up and repair structures of body

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52
Q

catabolism

A

breakdown of body tissues into simples forms, which can then be used to create energy

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53
Q

by product of metabolism is

A

heat

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54
Q

endergonic rxns

A

absorb free energy (anabolic)

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55
Q

exergonic reactions

A

release energy (catabolic)

56
Q

energy currency

A

ATP
high energy phosphate bonds store chemical energy

57
Q

ato may be degraded to

A

ADP or AMP; releases phosphate groups and energy, energy used to drive metabolic processes, heat is also produced

58
Q

ATP hydrolysis

A
  • phosphate bonds are high energy
  • Phosphate groups are neg charged; naturally repulsive
  • in ATP they are held close together
  • during hydrolysis this energy is released
  • coupled w cellular reactions, enable the cell to do work
59
Q

photosynthesis

A
  • electromagnetic energy in light is captured in plants, produces ATP
  • uses ATP plus H2O and CO2 used to generate glucose (sugar) and O2
  • O2 is released
  • glucose stored or used in cellular respiration
60
Q

order of other sources of energy being used by body

A
  • sugar reserves used first (glycogen), then fat reserves, then protein reserves (muscle)
  • require catabolism to produce ATP
61
Q

activation energy

A

energy investment required to reach unstable transition state

62
Q

transition state

A

when molecules absorb this energy and become unstable, where bonds can break

63
Q

how do enzymes lower Ea

A

by binding to its substrates forming a complex, converts the substrate into product

64
Q

enzyme specificity

A
  • high specificity w substrate
  • 3D structure (from amino acid sequence) binds substrate in a highly specific active site
65
Q

how is substrate held in active site of enzyme

A

weak H or ionic bonds

66
Q

mechanisms enzymes use to lower Ea

A
  1. Two substrates are bound close together so they can react
  2. The enzyme can stretch the substrates towards their transition state form
  3. The active site may create a favorable microenvironment
  4. Direct binding of substrate to amino acids in the active site
67
Q

what conditions do enzymes require to work at max efficiency

A
  • sufficient substrate to saturate the active site
  • physical environment at optimal pH and temp
  • cofactors (inorganic molecules) or coenzymes (organic molecules) sometimes requires
68
Q

competitive inhibitors

A

bind reversibly to an enzymes active site

69
Q

non competitive inhibitors

A

do not bind to he active site, bind elsewhere and change enzymes shape, makes active site harder to access

70
Q

how is control of metabolism by controlling enzymes achieved

A
  • switching on/off genes encoding specific enzymes
  • by regulatory molecules
71
Q

natural regulators

A
  • act like reversible competitive inhibitors
  • allosteric regulation
72
Q

what is a common allosteric inhibitor and activators to control enzymes

A

inhibitor; ATP
activator; ADP

73
Q

what is one of the most common ways to regulate a metabolic path

A

feedback inhibition
- end product binds to one of the early enzymes in a metabolic path, prevents it from catalyzing, pathway switched off

74
Q

localization of enzymes within the cell

A

enzymes are located in many different sites within cell

enzymes which catalyze steps in same path often located together

75
Q

cellular respiration produces ____ and ____ and generates ____

A

H2O, CO2

ATP

76
Q

oxidation

A

loss of electrons or increase in oxidation state

77
Q

reduction

A

gain of electrons or decrease in oxidation state

78
Q

3 stages in cellular respiration

A
  • glycolysis
  • Citric acid cycle
  • electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation
79
Q

glycolysis

A
  • splits glucose into 2 3C compounds
  • occurs in cell cytoplasm
  • product is pyruvate
80
Q

2 stages in glycolysis

A

energy investment and energy payoff; spend ATP to make ATP

81
Q

does glycolysis require oxygen

A

no

82
Q

is carbon released during glycolysis

A

no

83
Q

where does pyruvate from glycolysis go

A

into the mitochondria, converted into acetyl-co-A and enters the citric acid cycle

84
Q

where does CAC take place

A

mitochondrial matrix

85
Q

CAC

A
  • produces CO2 and NADH
86
Q

pyruvate to acetyl coA involves what enzyme

A

pyruvate dehydrogenase (PD)

87
Q

what 2 enzymes control pyruvate dehydrogenase (PD)

A
  • pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) phosphorylates PD and makes it inactive
  • pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase (PDP) reverses actions of PDK and makes PD active again
88
Q

at end of glycolysis and CAC what is a net gain of

A

4 ATP

most energy has been harvested as NADH or FADH2

89
Q

where does ETC take place

A

in mitochondrial membrane

90
Q

as electrons are passed down the ETC, H+ ions are

A

transported into the inter-membranous space

91
Q

where can electrons enter the ETC

A

complex I or complex II, both of which feed to CoQ and then onto Complex III and so on

92
Q

how does ATP synthase work

A

The ATP synthases uses that proton gradient as the
power force to phosphorylate ADP to ATP

H+ escape back into the inter membrane space through ATP synthase

ATP synthase uses the protons kinetic energy

93
Q

Each member of the electron transport chain gets progressively more

A

electronegative

94
Q

electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed down the ETC in a series of

A

redox reactions

this pumps protons from mitochondrial matrix to the inter-membrane space

95
Q

ATP synthase; concept of used H+ gradient to do work is called

A

chemiosmosis

96
Q

ATP synthase structure

A

protein complex with 4 main parts, each part composed of multiple polypeptides, protons bind one by one to parts of the rotor, changes shape of rotor and causes it to spin, catalyses ATP synthesis

97
Q

max amount of ATP generated during cellular respiration

A

30-32 molecules

98
Q

strenuous exercise on ETC

A
  • pH decreases; more acidic; effects complex I, less proton force generated
  • temp increases; get leak in system and protons can cross back over without ATP synthase
99
Q

electrons leaking from ETC can produce

A

reactive oxygen species such as superoxide and hydrogen peroxide; toxic but necessary signalling molecules

100
Q

endurance rely on

A

aerobic metabolism, slower energy supply than anaerobic, but produces large amount of energy

101
Q

mid distance rely on

A

initially rely on stored ATP and phosphocreatine in muscle, and then move into aerobic energy production

As they approach the final sprint, the oxygen supply
becomes inadequate compared to the metabolic demand. They gradually ramp up
anaerobic glycolysis,

102
Q

sprinting relies on

A

anaerobic metabolism
Energy released from glucose
and stored glycogen (i.e.,
glycolysis)
Hydrolysis of phosphocreatine
stored in muscle cells (8‐10s
burst of max energy generation)

103
Q

traditional view or metabolism

A

aerobic metabolism
is “good”, and anaerobic metabolism is ”bad” ie lactic acid is bad

104
Q

lactic acid strength

A

weaker acid than any other intermediate of glycolysis so it actually increases pH of cell

105
Q

lactate clamp experiments

A

nothing happened when lactate was forced to stay up

106
Q

lactic acid overview

A

glycolytic fiber, and it’s producing glucose. At some point, you generate so much pyruvate it goes over into lactate, which then goes out into the bloodstream, through a monocarboxylate transporter. And then you’ve got your oxidative fibers. Highly oxidative fibers take lactate up, convert it back into pyruvate, and then passing it through their considerably larger supply of mitochondria, and making ATP with it through the krebs cycle.
At physiological pH levels, lactic acid is nearly complete dissociated into a lactate anion and hydrogen ion which are both removed from the muscles. Once in the blood, the free H+ is buffered by bicarb producing CO2 which is subsequently expelled during expiration. The lactate anion is reused in one of two ways. It’s either transported to metabolically active cells where it is converted back to pyruvate to be used for aerobic energy metabolism, or it’s transported to the liver for gluconeogenesis

Summary: lactate is a product of anaerobic metabolism. If the concentration in the blood is increasing, glucose is broken down and oxidized to pyruvate, and lactate is produced from the pyruvate faster than the capacity of clearance/consumption mechanisms.

107
Q

Lactate shuffle

A

lactate going round the body not just accumulating

108
Q

which of the following referring to inert atoms is false

The outermost shell always requires 8 electrons for stability

An atom with a complete valance shell is unreactive, or inert

An atom with an incomplete valence shells is unreactive, or inert

The first valence shell contains 2 electrons in its orbit

A

An atom with an incomplete valence shells is unreactive, or inert

109
Q

Which of the following statements referring to chemically reactive atoms is FALSE?

The chemical properties of an atom depend on the number of valence electrons

An atom that loses its valence electrons becomes positively charged; this is known as a cation

An atom that gains electrons to complete its valence shell will be negatively charged; this is known as an anion

An atom with a complete valance shell is chemically reactive

A

An atom with a complete valance shell is chemically reactive

110
Q

Which of the following statements regarding covalent bonds is TRUE?

2 atoms share a pair of valence electrons

Compounds which form covalent bonds are salts

If an electron is transferred, this is a covalent bond

Covalent bonds are formed from non-polar molecules where “hot-spots” of positive and negative may transiently occur

A

2 atoms share a pair of valence electrons

111
Q

Which of the following statements BEST describes hydrogen bonds?

They are formed from non-polar molecules where “hot-spots” of positive and negative may transiently occur

A hydrogen atom attached to an electronegative atom (e.g., O or N) by a polar covalent bond is shared with another electronegative atom through a weak electrical attraction

They are formed where 2 atoms share a pair of valence electrons, and are a strong chemical bond

It is a strong chemical bond, which is formed between cations and anions

A

A hydrogen atom attached to an electronegative atom (e.g., O or N) by a polar covalent bond is shared with another electronegative atom through a weak electrical attraction

112
Q

Which of the following statements regarding surface tension is FALSE?

Water molecules want to interact with one another rather than with air

Molecules in the centre of a drop of liquid are equally attracted to surrounding molecules

Molecules at the surface are drawn into the centre, away from the air-water interface

Molecules at the surface of a drop of liquid are equally attracted to surrounding molecules

A

Molecules at the surface of a drop of liquid are equally attracted to surrounding molecules

113
Q

Many substances can dissolve in water. Which of the following is the CORRECT term to describe a liquid which is able to dissolve other substances?

A

solvent

114
Q

Each carbon is a branch point with 4 possible options. Which of the following types of bonds is NOT formed by a single carbon to other atoms?

4 single bonds

2 single bonds and 1 double bond

1 double bond and 1 triple bond

1 triple bond and 1 single bond

A

1 double bond and 1 triple bond

115
Q

Which of the following statements BEST describes cis-trans isomers?

A

Differ in arrangement around a double bond

116
Q

Which of the following statements regarding proteins is FALSE?

All proteins are comprised of amino acids

Proteins have a rich and diverse array of functions

Essential amino acids are the amino acids that it is essential to have in the diet

The categorisation of essential versus non-essential amino acids is the same for all organisms

A

The categorisation of essential versus non-essential amino acids is the same for all organisms

117
Q

A peptide bond is formed between the carbon and nitrogen atoms during which of the following types of reaction?

A

Dehydration reaction

118
Q

Which of the following statements regarding side chains is FALSE?

The different properties of polypeptides are from their various side chains, or “R” groups

Non-polar side chains are hydrophilic

Polar side chains are hydrophilic

Electrically charged side chains are hydrophilic

A

Non-polar side chains are hydrophilic

119
Q

Which of the following is NOT a property of phospholipids?

Phospholipids make up all animal cell membranes

Have 2 fatty acids bound to the glycerol backbone

Have a hydrophobic head

Naturally form bilayers in water

A

Have a hydrophobic head

120
Q

Which of the following statements regarding ATP hydrolysis to ADP is TRUE?

Requires energy; obtains energy from catabolism

Requires energy; comes from glycolysis

Yields energy that is coupled in the cell to an exergonic reaction

Yields energy that is coupled to an endergonic, energy-consuming processes

A

Yields energy that is coupled to an endergonic, energy-consuming processes

121
Q

Which of the following statements regarding ATP hydrolysis is FALSE?

Phosphate groups are negatively charged and are naturally repulsive. However, in ATP they are forced close together. On hydrolysis this energy is released.

ATP hydrolysis is coupled with reactions that are naturally exergonic

ATP hydrolysis is coupled with reactions that are naturally endergonic

ATP hydrolysis enables the cell to “do work”

A

ATP hydrolysis is coupled with reactions that are naturally exergonic

122
Q

Activation energy is the:

A

Initial energy investment required to reach an unstable transition state, during a reaction

123
Q

Which of the following statements regarding enzymes is FALSE?

Enzymes lower the activation energy barrier, decreasing the energy investment required in order for the reaction to proceed

Enzymes have high specificity with which they bind their substrates, due to the 3D structure of the active site

For an enzyme to work at maximum efficiency, there must be sufficient substrate to saturate the active site

Non-competitive inhibitors bind reversibly to the active site, mimicking the substrate

A

Non-competitive inhibitors bind reversibly to the active site, mimicking the substrate

124
Q

Metabolism can be controlled through controlling enzymes. This can NOT be achieved by:

Switching on or off genes, which encode specific enzymes

Allosteric regulation. ATP is a common allosteric inhibitor.

Allosteric regulation. ADP is a common allosteric inhibitor.

Feedback inhibition. This is where the end product binds to one of the early enzymes in a metabolic path, preventing it from catalysing reactions.

A

Allosteric regulation. ADP is a common allosteric inhibitor.

125
Q

Which of the following is NOT a product of cellular respiration?

Carbon dioxide

Glucose

ATP

Water

A

Glucose

126
Q

Redox reactions are chemical reactions in which the oxidation state of substrates change. Which of the following statements is INCORRECT?

Oxidation is the loss of electrons, and is often achieved by losing electrons to oxygen

Oxidation is an increase in the oxidation state of a molecule, and is often achieved by sharing electrons with oxygen

Reduction is the gain of electrons, which is often achieved by gaining electrons from oxygen

Reduction is a decrease in the oxidation state of a chemical, which is often achieved by sharing electrons with hydrogen

A

Reduction is the gain of electrons, which is often achieved by gaining electrons from oxygen

127
Q

Which of the following statements regarding glycolysis is TRUE?

It occurs in the mitochondrial matrix

Glycolysis is the splitting of glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid (pyruvate)

The product of glycolysis is glucose

Glycolysis requires oxygen to occur

A

Glycolysis is the splitting of glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid (pyruvate)

128
Q

The main PRODUCT of the Krebs cycle that is used in the electron transport chain is:

A

NADH

129
Q

Which of the following statements regarding the electron transport chain is INCORRECT?

The electron transport chain is a series of molecules embedded into the inner membrane of the mitochondria

As electrons are passed down the chain, H+ ions are transported into the intermembranous space

There are thousands of copies of the electron transport chain contained in each mitochondrion

As electrons are passed down the chain, H+ ions are transported into the mitochondrial matrix

A

As electrons are passed down the chain, H+ ions are transported into the mitochondrial matrix

130
Q

Oxygen gets consumed at which complex of the electron transport chain?

Complex I

Complex II

Complex III

Complex IV

A

Complex IV

131
Q

Which protein complex in the inner mitochondrial membrane is responsible for converting ADP and phosphate into ATP?

A

ATP Synthase

132
Q

Strenuous exercise results in an increase in skeletal muscle temperature in horses. This has an effect on the electron transport chain. Which complex does it primarily have an effect on, and what is this effect

A

Complex I. Without complex I functioning properly, you get less proton force being generated.

133
Q

Which of the following best describes in order from greatest to least, the aerobic contribution to overall energy production of these equine performance disciplines?

A

Endurance > Thoroughbred racing > Barrel racing

134
Q

Which of the following intermediates of glycolysis is the WEAKEST acid?

A

Lactic acid

135
Q

Which of the following statements referring to lactate is INCORRECT?

Oxidative fibres take lactate up and convert it back into pyruvate, which then passes into their considerably larger supply of mitochondria (than glycolytic fibres) to make ATP

Lactate is produced in glycolytic fibres, and passes out into the bloodstream through a monocarboxylate transporter

The liver takes up lactate and makes glucose through a process called gluconeogenesis

The concentration of lactate that you measure in the blood is the amount of lactate that the body is producing

A

The concentration of lactate that you measure in the blood is the amount of lactate that the body is producing

AGRC1041 (20 decks)

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