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PSYC221 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY > CHAPTER11 - LANGUAGE > Flashcards

CHAPTER11 - LANGUAGE Flashcards

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1
Q

define language

A

a system of communication using sounds or symbols enabling expression of feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences

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2
Q

do humans or animals have a wide variety of signals to be combined in COUNTLESS ways?

A

humans

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3
Q

animals use language on for what basis?

A

survival

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4
Q

humans language is seen as more ____

A

creativity-based

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5
Q

what 2 kinds of nature allow us to create new and unique sentences?

A

hierarchical and rule-based

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6
Q

describe the hierarchical nature of language

A

consisting of small components that can be combined to form larger units

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7
Q

describe the rule-based nature of language

A

components in language can be arranged in certain ways but not others

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8
Q

why is language considered to be universal?

A

it occurs wherever there are people

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9
Q

who were the Greek philosophers that studied language?

A

Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle

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10
Q

Paul Broca said that damage in the _____ imapirs _____

A

frontal lobe; speech production

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11
Q

Carl Wrenkie said that damage in the _____ impairs ____

A

temporal lobe; speech comprehension

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12
Q

what did B.F Skinner propose?

A

language is learned through reinforcement

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13
Q

describe Skinner’s behaviourist view on language and children

A

children learn language by being rewarded for correct usage and punished for incorrect usage

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14
Q

who disagreed with the behaviourist theory of language?

A

Noam Chomsky

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15
Q

what did Noam Chomsky propose?

A

humans are preprogrammed to acquire and use language through genetics

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16
Q

why did Noam Chomsky propose this over Skinner’s theory?

A

children produce sentences that are not reinforced or taught which goes against Skinner’s theory

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17
Q

what is psycholinguistics?

A

the field concerned with the psychological study of language

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18
Q

what is the goal of a psycholinguistic scholar?

A

discover the psychological processes humans use to acquire and process language

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19
Q

what are the 4 concerns of psycholinguistics?

A

comprehension
representation
speech production
acquisition

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20
Q

what is comprehension in psycholinguistics?

A

how people understand and process words and sounds

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21
Q

what is representation in psycholinguistics?

A

how language is represented, grouped, and connected in the mind

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22
Q

what is speech production in psycholinguistics?

A

how people mentally and physically produce language

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23
Q

what is acquisition in psycholinguistics?

A

how people learn their own language and additional ones

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24
Q

what is a lexicon?

A

all the words we know

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25
Q

what does a lexicon serve as?

A

a mental dictionary

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26
Q

what are semantics?

A

the meaning of language

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27
Q

what are lexical semantics?

A

the meanings of words

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28
Q

what is word frequency?

A

the frequency with which a word appears in a language

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29
Q

what is the word frequency effect?

A

when people respond faster to high-frequency words rather than low

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30
Q

how does word frequency affect us in language?

A

influences how we process a word

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31
Q

how can someone demonstrate the word fluency effect?

A

lexical decision task

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32
Q

what is the lexical decision task?

A

deciding as quickly as possible whether a string of letters are words or nonwords

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33
Q

who demonstrated slower responses for low frequency words by measuring eye movements + fixation durations?

A

Keith Rayner and Susan Duffy

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34
Q

describe the task Rayner and Duffy’s participants had to do

A

reading a sentences with combinations of high and low frequency words

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35
Q

what did Rayner and Duffy observe in their experiment?

A

longer fixation periods for sentences containing a low frequency word

total gaze duration was also longer for a sentence with a low frequency word

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36
Q

what did Rayner and Duffy conclude about the frequency word effect?

A

people need more time to access the meaning of low frequency words

it demonstrates how past experience with words influences our ability to access their meaning

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37
Q

do people pronounce words the exact same? what effects are there?

A

no

accents, speed, slang, phonemes

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38
Q

what aids our ability to understand what someone is saying when they don’t talk the same way you do?

A

context within which a word appears

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39
Q

Irwin Pollack and J.M Pickett showed words are harder to understand when…

A

they’re taken out of context and presented alone

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40
Q

how did Pollack and Pickett demonstrate context influence?

A

presented recordings of participants’ conversations with single words taken out

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41
Q

what did Pollack and Pickett observe?

A

that participants can only identify half of the words

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42
Q

what did Pollack and Pickett conclude?

A

the ability to perceive words in a conversation is aided by the context provided by words and sentences making up the conversation

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43
Q

who found that infants are sensitive to statistical regularities in speech signal?

A

Jennifer Saffran

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44
Q

what are the statistical regularities that Saffran used?

A

how different sounds follow one another in a language and how knowing these regularities help infants achieve speech segmentation

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45
Q

what is speech segmentation?

A

perception of individual words even though there are no pauses between words

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46
Q

knowing that ty follows pret- in the word pretty is an example of …

A

speech segmentation

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47
Q

what aids speech segentation?

A

knowledge of the meanings of words

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48
Q

what 4 things affect our ability to understand spoken words ?

A
  1. how frequently we have encountered a word in the past
  2. the context in which a word appears
  3. our knowledge of statistical regularities of our language
  4. our knowledge of word meanings
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49
Q

what is lexical ambiguity?

A

when words have more meaning

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50
Q

what solely aids understanding a word when lexical ambiguity occurs?

A

context within which a word appears

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51
Q

who showed people briefly access multiple meanings of ambiguous words before the effect of context comes into play?

A

Michael Tanenhaus

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52
Q

what technique did Tanenhaus use in his ambiguity experiement?

A

lexical priming

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53
Q

what is lexical priming and how did Tanenhaus use it?

A

priming that involves the meaning of words

reading a sentence with a target word followed by a probe stimulus word with a similar meaning

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54
Q

what were and describe Tanenhaus’ 2 conditions in his ambiguity experiment?

A

the noun-noun condition: target word is a noun and probe stimulus is a noun

  1. verb-noun condition: target word is a verb and probe stimulus is a noun
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55
Q

what was the task of Tanenhaus’ experiment?

A

reading the probe stimulus word as fast as possible

56
Q

time between the end of the sentence (w/target word) and saying the probe stimulus word was _____ in Tanenhaus’s experiment?

A

reaction time

57
Q

In Tanenhaus’ experiment, when priming of the word occurred reaction times were..

A

faster

58
Q

what did Tanenhaus propose occurs when priming occurs?

A

all the ambiguous meanings of a word are activated immediately after a word is heard

59
Q

what did Tanenhaus find comes to play when there’s a delay between the target word and stimulus probe?

A

context influence - where meanings are accessed

60
Q

what is meaning dominance?

A

the relative frequency of the meaning of ambiguous words

61
Q

what is biased dmoninance?

A

when one meaning of a word occurs more often than another

62
Q

what is balanced dominance?

A

when one meaning and another meaning are equally as likely to occur

63
Q

sentences creating context enable (3).. the ability to

A
  1. deal with the variability of word pronunciations
  2. perceive individual words in a continuous stream of speech
  3. determine the meaning of ambiguous words
64
Q

what does determining the meaning of a sentence require considerations of?

A

syntax and parsing

65
Q

what is syntax?

A

the structure of a sentence and discovering cues that language provides showing how words in a sentence relate to one another

66
Q

what is parsing?

A

how meaning is created by the grouping of words in phrases

67
Q

what are mental pyrotechnics?

A

involves understanding each word as it occurs and parsing words into phrases

68
Q

what are garden path sentences?

A

when a sentence starts appearing to mean one thing but ends up meaning something else

69
Q

what is temporary ambiguity?

A

when the first organization is adopted/understood, error realization occurs, and shifts to the correct organization of a sentence

70
Q

what is the garden path model of parsing?

A

states that as people read a sentence their grouping of words into phrases is governed by heuristics

71
Q

what are heuristics?

A

a rule that can be applied rapidly when making a decision

72
Q

heuristics can lead to …

A

the wrong decision and then reconsideration of the initial parse to make appropriate corrections

73
Q

what is the principle of late closure?

A

states that when a person encounters a new word, the person’ s parsing mechanism assumes this word is part of the current phrase

74
Q

initially assuming “the cat examined .. “ is part of the current phrase in “the cat examined by the doctor” is an example of

A

the principle of late closure

75
Q

what is the constraint-based approach to parsing:

A

the idea that information in addition to syntax participates in processing when a person reads/hears a sentence

76
Q

how does the constraint-based approach to parsing work?

A

information of words in a sentence and context within each sentence can lead to predictions about how the sentence should be parsed

77
Q

what technique did Michael Tanenhaus come up with when determining how scene information can influence sentence processing ?

A

visual world paradigm

78
Q

what is non-linguistic information?

A

information provided by the scene

79
Q

what is subject-related construction?

A

when a person/thing is exposed more in a sentence and has pronouns that follow them/it with a verb

80
Q

what is object-related construction?

A

when a person/thing is not followed by a pronoun and verb

81
Q

what do object-related constructions require more of?

A

the reader’s memory

82
Q

what are examples of pronouns that are useful and aids the idea of subject-related construction?

A

who, which, and that

83
Q

when are predictions helpful when dealing with a rapid pace of language?

A

when the language is degraded by noise or poor connection

84
Q

who demonstrated participants making predictions by measuring eye movements while reading sentences?

A

Garry Altmann and Yuki Kamide

85
Q

what were participants instructed to do in Altmann and Kamide’s experiment?

A

indicate whether the sentence heard can be applied to the objects in pictures shown

86
Q

what did Altmann and Kamide conclude?

A

specific words can lead to the prediction that a certain word will be next

87
Q

when looking a picture of a ball and cake and presented with the phrase the boy will eat.. what picture will someone look at faster?

A

the cake picture

88
Q

when looking a picture of a ball and cake and presented with the phrase the boy will move.. what picture will someone look at faster?

A

the ball picture

89
Q

how does someone create an understandable story when reading?

A

using the relationships between sentences

90
Q

what are inferences?

A

determining what the text means by using knowledge to go beyond the information provided

91
Q

what is a narrative?

A

refers to texts where there is a story that progresses from one event to another

92
Q

what is coherence?

A

the representation of the text in a person’s mind that creates clear relations between parts of the text and between text parts and main story topic

93
Q

what is anaphoric inference

A

determining who is being pictured when reading a sentence

94
Q

what is instrument inference

A

determining what is being pictured when reading a sentence

95
Q

what is casual inference?

A

inferring that events in one clause were caused by events in a previous clause

96
Q

what is a situation model?

A

stimulates the perceptual and motor characteristics of the objects and actions in a story

97
Q

Robert Stanfield and Rolf Zwaan presented sentences followed by pictures and asked if the sentence matched the picture being shown, what did they measure?

A

yes or no reaction times

98
Q

what did Stanfield and Zwaan conclude?

A

people create matching perceptions to what they read/hear in their head

99
Q

who observed how knowledge about a situation is activated in the mind as one reads a story?

A

Ross Metusalem

100
Q

what did Metusalem measure in a brain activity scan?

A

N400 waves= negative response

101
Q

if a word appearing in a story is unexpected, will the N400 response be larger or smaller?

A

larger

102
Q

how did Metusalem’s experiment demonstrate a situation model?

A

the N400 wave size responses show how many things associated with a particular scenario are activated

103
Q

who used fMRI activity to link movement, action words and brain activity?

A

Olaf Hauk

104
Q

what is the most common form of language production?

A

a conversation between 2 people

105
Q

when are conversations easier?

A

when both sides bring equal knowledge of the conversation topic

106
Q

what is the given-new contract?

A

states that a speaker should construct sentences including 2 kinds of information

107
Q

what are the 2 kinds of information a speaker should use to construct the conversation according to the given-new contract?

A

given information and new information

108
Q

what is given information?

A

what the listener already knows

109
Q

what is new information?

A

what the listener will hear for the first time

110
Q

who demonstrated the consequences of not following the given-new contract?

A

Susan Haviland and Herbert Clark

111
Q

describe Haviland and Clark’s experiment

A

presdnted pairs of sentences asking participants to press a button when they understood the second sentence following the first

112
Q

what did Haviland and Clark observe?

A

it took longer for people to comprehend the second sentence when they weren’t related

113
Q

what can Clark and Haviland conclude about the consequence of not following the given-new contract?

A

people need to make inferences because information was not given before they were told the new information

114
Q

does the pair of sentences follow the given-new contract?

they pulled the beer out of the trunk.
the beer was warm.

A

yes

115
Q

what is common ground?

A

the mental knowledge and belief shared among conversational parties

116
Q

when establishing common ground, what is the referential communication task?

A

where 2 people are exchanging information in a conversation and this information involves a reference

117
Q

what is a reference?

A

identifying something by naming or describing it

118
Q

when creating common ground, what is entrainment?

A

the synchronization between the 2 partners

119
Q

what is syntactic coordination?

A

when the conversational partners can end up coordinating their grammatical constructions

120
Q

what are examples of syntactic coordinations

A

gestures, speaking rate, body positions, pronunciation

121
Q

what is syntactic priming?

A

hearing a statement with a particular syntactic construction increasing the chances that the sentence will be produced with the same construction

122
Q

who demonstrated syntactic priming in a card experiment where the participants could not see each other?

A

Holly Barnigan

123
Q

what did Holly Barnigan conclude about syntactic priming?

A

speakers are sensitive to linguistic behaviour of other speakers and adjust their behaviours to match

124
Q

what is theory of mind?

A

ability to understand what others feel, think, and believe while interpreting gestures and expressions

125
Q

what is turn taking?

A

knowing when to enter a conversation

126
Q

what is music considered?

A

the language of emotion

127
Q

how does music represent language?

A

creates emotion through sounds that have no meaning

128
Q

in language how is emotion created?

A

by prosody

129
Q

what is prosody?

A

pattern of intonation and rhythm in spoken language

130
Q

what are emojis?

A

pictographs used to indicate emotions in written language

131
Q

what is tonic?

A

how notes of a melody are organized around the note associated with the composition’s key

132
Q

when a song ends the way it started what is that called?

A

return to tonic

133
Q

what is a P600 wave?

A

a positive response wave that responds to violation of syntax

134
Q

what is Broca’s aphasia?

A

difficulty understanding sentences with complex syntax

135
Q

what is congenital amusia?

A

difficulty with musical perception such as discriminating between simple melodies or reorganizing simple tunes

PSYC221 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY (11 decks)

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