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PSYC221 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY > CHAPTER 6 +7 LONG TERM MEMORY > Flashcards

CHAPTER 6 +7 LONG TERM MEMORY Flashcards

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1
Q

what is division?

A

refers to distinguishing between the different types of memory

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2
Q

why does distinguishing between memories become useful?

A

divides memory into smaller components

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3
Q

what are the 3 main mechanisms used to determine differences in memories?

A

behavioural experiments, neuropsychological studies, brain imaging

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4
Q

what is interaction?

A

refers to the fact that the different types of memory can interact and share mechanisms

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5
Q

define long-term memory

A

the system responsible for storing information for long periods of time

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6
Q

what does long-term memory serve as?

A

an archive of information about past events and previously learned knowledge

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7
Q

what important characteristic goes along with how LTM operates and interacts with working memory?

A

retaining information

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8
Q

describe how long-term memory creates an on going experience

A

acts as an archive one can refer to when wanting to remember something while using working memory

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9
Q

what is the serial position curve?

A

plots a % of a group that recalled a word vs where it was positioned on a list

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10
Q

how does one measure data to make a serial position curve?

A

presenting a list of words to a participant one after another

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11
Q

what is the primacy effect?

A

when memory is better for items at the beginning of a sequence

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12
Q

why does the primacy effect occur? (3)

A

there is more time to rehearse the words at the beginning to help transfer to LTM

no other words have been presented

those words have the person’s 100% attention

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13
Q

who presented 20 words at a rate of 1/5s but had participants repeat the words out loud between each?

A

Dewey Dundus

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14
Q

what did Dundus discover? (2)

A

the words at the beginning maintained its original serial position curve shape

the number of rehearsals aids to encoding information

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15
Q

what is the recency effect?

A

when memory is better for items at the end of a sequence

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16
Q

why does the recency effect occur?

A

the most recently presented words are still in short term memory = easier for them to remember

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17
Q

who had participants recall the words after they counted backwards for 30s after hearing a list of words?

A

Glanzer and Cuntiz

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18
Q

what did Glanzer and Cuntiz discover?

A

prevention of rehearsal allowed time for information to get lost in STM to eliminate the recency effect

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19
Q

what is coding?

A

refers to the form in which stimuli are represented

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20
Q

what is the mental approach to coding?

A

noting how an experience or stimulus is represented in the mind

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21
Q

what are the 3 types of coding?

A

visual, audio, semantic

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22
Q

what is visual coding in STM like?

A

remembering a pattern by representing it visually in the mind

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23
Q

what is visual coding in LTM like?

A

visualizing a person or place from the past

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24
Q

what is audio coding in STM like?

A

use of the phonological similarity effect and misidentifying target letters as another that sounds familiar to it

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25
Q

what is audio coding in LTM like?

A

when someone plays a song in their head

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26
Q

who demonstrated what semantic coding like in STM?

A

Delos Wickens

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27
Q

how did Delos Wickens demonstrate semantic coding in STM?

A

presented words that were related to each other and used the release of proactive interference to demonstrate categorization of meaning

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28
Q

what is proactive interference?

A

when the learning of new material is affected by the interference of old material

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29
Q

what is retroactive interference?

A

when the recall of old material is interfered by the learning of new material

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30
Q

who demonstrated semantic coding in LTM?

A

Jaqueline Sachs

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31
Q

how did Sachs demonstrate semantic coding in LTM?

A

had people listen to an audio tape of a message and measured if they remembered the exact message or just the general meaning of it

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32
Q

what is the recognition memory?

A

the identification of a stimulus that was encountered earlier

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33
Q

describe the recognition memory method

A

presentation of a stimulus during a study period and later presenting it with stimulus that was not shown before

asking for a yes or no if the original stimulus was presented again

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34
Q

recall is ______ and recognition memory is _____ on exams

A

fill in the blank, multiple choice

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35
Q

Henry Molaison experimented on ____ by removing ___

A

HM, hippocampus on both sides of the brain

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36
Q

what did Henry Molaison do unintendedly?

A

eliminated HMs ability to form new long term memories but kept his short term memories in tact

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37
Q

what did Molaison discover about the hippocampus’ role in the brain?

A

it forms long term memories

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38
Q

what did Molaison come to realize about STM and LTM?

A

they are served by separate brain regions

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39
Q

Patient ___ suffered from damage to his _____

A

KF, parietal lobe

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40
Q

KF had a functioning LTM but …

A

showcased a poor STM, digit span, and recency effect

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41
Q

the opposing problems between HM and KF demonstrates ________ & _________

A

double dissociation & independent mechanisms for both memories

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42
Q

who used brain imaging to examine the role of the hippocampus? how?

A

Ranganath and D’Esposito and by presenting stimuli while having their brains scanned

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43
Q

what were the 2 conditions of Ranganath and D’Esposito’s experiment?

A

novel face and familiar face

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44
Q

what did Ranganath and D’Esposito’s experiment show? (3)

A

activity in the hippocampus increases when seeing novel faces and changes only slightly when seeing familiar faces

hippocampus is involved in retaining novel information in memory = role in STM

separation of LTM and STM is not as separated as once suggested

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45
Q

what 3 considerations were made when establishing/distinguishing between episodic memory and semantic memeory?

A

type of experience
brain damage effects
fMRI responses

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46
Q

who proposed episodic and semantic memories handle different information types and are distinguished based on experience?

A

Endel Tulving

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47
Q

when examining differences in experiences, what property does episodic memory have?

A

mental time travel

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48
Q

what is mental time travel?

A

the experience of traveling back in time to reconnect with past events

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49
Q

how does semantic memory differ in terms of experience and memory?

A

involves accessing knowledge that might not be tied to personal experience and demonstrates accessing things we are familiar with

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50
Q

what specific things are involved in semantic memory?

A

facts, vocabulary, numbers, concepts

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51
Q

when examining neuropsychological evidence, damage to HM’s hippocampus resulted loss in his ____ but still ___________

A

episodic memory, knows certain things happened

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52
Q

HM knowing his brother died but not remembering hearing about his death nor feelings at the funeral showed he retained his __________

A

semantic memory

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53
Q

when examining neuropsychological evidence, LP suffered from encephalitis losing her _____ but still _____

A

semantic memory, remembered events from her life and could still form new episodic memories

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54
Q

LP’s difficulty of recognizing familiar people, shopping list word meanings, and simple locations demonstrates her loss of ______

A

semantic memory

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55
Q

who had participants keep audiotape diaries of personal events and presented them within an fMRI to compare responses?

A

Brian Levine

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56
Q

what are the interactions between episodic and semantic memory?

A

knowledge affecting experience and autobiographical memory

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57
Q

describe how knowledge affects one’s experience

A

semantic memory guides experiences to influence episodic memory

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58
Q

how does autobiographical memory have both episodic and semantic components?

A

it involves personal semantic memories

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59
Q

what is autobiographical memory?

A

memory for specific experiences from life

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60
Q

what are personal semantic memories?

A

facts associated with personal experiences

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61
Q

who showed that people’s knowledge about public figures can have both semantic and episodic components?

A

Westmacott and Moscovitch

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62
Q

what are autobiographically significant memories?

A

semantic memories involving personal episodes

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63
Q

autobiographically significant memories demonstrate how…

A

experiences related to episodic memories can aid in accessing semantic memories

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64
Q

what are the different degrees of forgetting and remembering?

A

familiarity and recollection

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65
Q

describe familiarity and state what memory it is associated with

A

a person or thing seeming familiar but having no memory of experiences related to them/it –> associated to semantic memory

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66
Q

describe recollection and state what memory it is associated with

A

remembering specific experiences related to the person or thing –> associated with episodic memory

67
Q

describe the remember/know procedure

A

presenting stimuli one has encountered before and are asked to respond if they remember, know of, or don’t know that stimulus

68
Q

in the remember/know procedure, what is “remembering”?

A

remembering if the stimulus is familiar and remembering the original circumstances it was encountered under

69
Q

in the remember/know procedure, what is “knowing”?

A

thinking the stimulus seems familiar but do not remember experiencing it prior

70
Q

which response in the remember/know procedure has episodic components?

A

the remember response

71
Q

which response in the remember/know procedure has semantic components?

A

the know response

72
Q

who determined how people’s memory for public events changes over time and presented events from over a 50 year period?

A

Raluca Petrican

73
Q

what procedure did Raluca Petrican use when asking participants to determine if they remember, know, or don’t know the event described?

A

remember/know procedure

74
Q

what is semanticization of remote memories?

A

loss of episodic detail for memories of long-ago events

75
Q

how do episodic and semantic memories change over time?

A

knowledge within semantic memories is attained through personal experiences but over time the experience will fade and the knowledge will not fade

76
Q

why is creating possible connections to the future important in memory research?

A

imagining the future involves the idea of when the future becomes the present and helps us know how to act effectively

77
Q

loss of episodic memory resulted in patients.. _____

A

not being able to imagine future personal events

78
Q

who looked for a link using fMRI to determine how the brain is activated by remembering the past and imagining the future

A

Donna Rose Addis

79
Q

what did Donna Rose Addis conclude about brain activity and past/future thinking?

A

all regions active when thinking of the past are active when thinking of the future

80
Q

what is the constructive episodic simulation hypothesis?

A

states that episodic memories are extracted and recombined to construct simulations of future events

81
Q

who was curious about person perspectives when remembering or imagining the future?

A

Elanor McDermott

82
Q

what did Donna Rose Addis suggest about episodic memory?

A

the episodic memory system is not to remember the past but to enable stimulation of possible future scenarios

83
Q

what are the 4 mind wandering characteristics

A

associated with default mode network activation

is extremely prevalent

causes decreasing in performance on attention-required tasks

enables someone to think about the future

84
Q

based on the 4 characteristics of mind wandering, what can damage to the default mode network do?

A

causing problems in retrieving autobiographical memories

85
Q

what are explicit memories?

A

memories we are aware of

86
Q

what are implicit memories?

A

experiences and learning not accompanied by active conscious remembering

87
Q

what are procedural/skill memories?

A

memory for doing things that typically involve learned skills

88
Q

LJS suffered loss of episodic memory but still knew how to lay the violin due to what kind of memory?

A

procedural/skill memory

89
Q

procedural memory allows amnesiac patients to ________ even thought they do not remember any of the practice that led to mastery

A

master new skills

90
Q

what is mirror drawing?

A

involves copying a picture that is seen in a mirror

91
Q

true or false, having a conversation as an infant demonstrates procedural memory

A

true

92
Q

what is the main effect of procedural memories?

A

carrying out skills without thinking about what the person is doing

93
Q

what is expert-induced amnesia?

A

when well-learned procedural memories do not require attention

94
Q

carrying out a skill in an automatic way and the explanation as to how someone carried out that skill is “I didn’t really see it just happened” demonstrates

A

expert-induced amnesia

95
Q

LSJ being able to answer questions related to things involving procedural memory demonstrates a link between procedural memory to ______

A

semantic memory

96
Q

if LSJ was able to answer “ who painted a specific painting using a special technique of brush stroking?” ; this describes a link between semantic memory and memory involving ______

A

motor skills

97
Q

what is priming?

A

occurs when the presentation of a stimulus changes the way a person responds to another stimulus

98
Q

what is priming associated with?

A

implicit memory

99
Q

what is repetition priming?

A

occurs when the test stimulus is the same or resembles the priming stimulus

100
Q

why does priming demonstrate implicit memory?

A

priming can occur even though participants may not remember the original presentation of the priming stimuli

101
Q

who tested patients with amnesia to ensure presentation of priming was not remembered?

A

Peter Graf

102
Q

what were the 3 groups used in Peter Graf’s amnesia group experiment?

A
  1. Korsakoff’s syndrome group
  2. alcoholics with no amnesia
  3. control group (no amnesia nor alcohol addiction)
103
Q

what is Kosakoff’s syndrome?

A

associated with alcohol abuse and eliminates the ability to form new memories

104
Q

how did Graf present and execute his experiement?

A

presented a 10-word list and had participants rate how much they liked each word

105
Q

how did Graf test his partipants?

A

test of explicit memory: recall of words they read

implicit memory test: word completion test

106
Q

what was the word completion test in Peter Graf’s experiement?

A

completing the 1st 3 letters of each word in the list by adding letters to create the first word that comes to mind

107
Q

how does one avoid remembering in a priming experiment?

A

presenting the priming stimulus in a task that does not appear to be a memory task

108
Q

what is the propaganda effect?

A

when participants are more likely to rate a previously seen/read statement to be true just because of previous exposure

109
Q

how does the propaganda effect involve implicit memory?

A

it can operate when people are not aware they have seen the stimulus prior even if it might’ve been false when presented

110
Q

what is classical conditioning?

A

when a neutral and conditioning stimuli are paired to cause a conditioned response to the neutral stimulus

111
Q

why does classical conditioning involve implicit memory?

A

it can easily be forgotten what was originally paired with the neutral stimulus

112
Q

what is operant conditioning?

A

the strengthened behaviour due to presentation to positive reinforcers or withdrawal of negative ones

113
Q

what is operant conditioning considered to be the premise of?

A

superstition

114
Q

what is operant conditioning considered to be the premise of?

A

superstition

115
Q

what is encoding?

A

the process of acquiring information and transferring into LTM

116
Q

what is retrieval ?

A

the bringing of information into consciousness by transferring it from LTM to working memory

117
Q

when encoding information, what are the 2 kinds of rehearsal commonly used?

A

maintenance and elbaorative

118
Q

what is maintenance rehearsal?

A

rehearsing information without any consideration of meaning or making connections with other information

119
Q

maintenance rehearsal results in ______

A

little to no encoding and poor memory

120
Q

what is elaborative rehearsal?

A

rehearsing information while considering meaning or making connections to other information

121
Q

elaborative rehearsal results in ____

A

better memory

122
Q

who linked the type of encoding to retrieval and what theory did they use/coin?

A

Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart, levels of processing theory

123
Q

describe the levels of processing theory

A

memory depends on the depth of processing that an item receives

124
Q

what are the 2 kinds of levels in the levels processing theory?

A

shallow and deep

125
Q

what is shallow processing?

A

involves little attention to meaning and focuses on a words physical features

126
Q

what is deep processing?

A

involves close attention and elaborative rehearsal to focus on meaning and relationship

127
Q

who tested memory following different levels of processing?

A

Craik and Tulving

128
Q

what types of questions did Craik and Tulving ask their participants in their levels of processing experiment?

A

about physical features
about rhyming
fill in the blanks/fitting

129
Q

in Craik and Tulving’s experiment using levels of processing, match the kinds of questions to the levels of processing

A

physical = structural = shallow

rhyming = phonemic = deeper

fill in/complete= semantic = deepest

130
Q

what were the results of Craik and Tulving’s levels of processing experiment?

A

the deeper processed words were better remembered and memory retrieval is affected by how items are encoded

131
Q

who tested whether using visual imagery can enhance memory?

A

Gordon Bower and David Winzez

132
Q

what did Bower and Winzez use in their visual imagery experiment?

A

paired-associate learning

133
Q

what is paired-associate learning?

A

using a list of word pairs presented and later having the first word of each pair being presented where the participant has to remember the other word in each pairing

134
Q

how did Bower and Winzez execute their experiment ?

A

15 pairs of nouns for 5s each and had one group silently repeat and the other forming mental pictures of the words interacting

135
Q

what were the results of Bower and Winzez’s experiment?

A

the group that formed mental pictures remembered twice as many words

136
Q

what is the self-reference effect?

A

when memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself

137
Q

how did Erik Leshikar demonstrate the self-reference effect? what were the 2 groups used?

A

had participants look at a series of adjectives in 2 groups

had self and common condition groups

138
Q

explain Erik Leshikar’s self and common condition groups

A

self condition group = indicated if the adjectives described themselves

common condition group= indicated if the words are used commonly

139
Q

in Erik Lashikar’s experiment, what were the results and what did he conclude?

A

memory was better for the self condition group

words become linked to something well known

140
Q

who demonstrated that enhancing of learning and retention of material is better when material is generated rather than passively receiving it?

A

Norman Slameka and Peter Graf

141
Q

what is the generation effect?

A

when self generation of material enhances the learning and retention of it than receiving it passively

142
Q

what were the 2 groups of Slameka and Graf’s generation effect experiment?

A

read: reading pairs of related words
generate: fill in the blank with a word related to the first one

both had to reproduce each word pair

143
Q

what is a retrieval cue?

A

a word or stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory

144
Q

how does organization of information assist in a better recall?

A

uses categories to create a recall list that is more organized than an original randomized list

145
Q

who measured recall when words were already organized? what did they use?

A

Gordon Bower , organizational tree

146
Q

what is an organizational tree?

A

organizes a number of words according to category

147
Q

who measured how preventing organization would reduce memory?

A

John Bransford and Marcia Johnson

148
Q

how did Bransford and Johnson execute their experiment?

A

asked participants to read a passage that was difficult to understand and to picture what is going on

149
Q

what were the results and conclusions of Bransford and Johnsons’s experiment?

A

a mental framework helps a reader link sentences and makes it easier to remember a passage later

organization of information demonstrates how material is programmed into the mind

150
Q

who said we can understand memory works when considering function in terms of survival?

A

James Nairline

151
Q

what is the retrieval practice effect?

A

people remember things better if they are tested on them

152
Q

who demonstrated the retrieval practice effect in an experiement?

A

Karpicke and Foediger

153
Q

what is the testing effect?

A

enhanced performance due to retrieval practice

154
Q

what is elaboration?

A

a process that helps transfer learned material into LTM by thinking about what is being read and giving it meaning by relation

155
Q

what is the spacing effect?

A

when memory is better when studying into a number of short sessions with breaks in between rather than in a concentrated long session

156
Q

what is the familiarity effect?

A

when rereading causes material to become familiar

157
Q

what is the problem with the familiarity effect?

A

causes a false indication of knowing the material due to an intendency to interpret it

158
Q

what is free recall?

A

simply being asked to recall stimuli

159
Q

what is cued recall?

A

words or phrases presented with retrieval cues to aid in the recall of previously experienced stimuli

160
Q

what are the 3 matching conditions to increase retrieval?

A

encoding specificity

state-dependent learning

transfer-appropriate processing

161
Q

what is encoding specificity?

A

matching the context in which encoding and retrieval occur

162
Q

what is state-dependent learning? what does it state?

A

matching the internal mood present during encoding and retrieval

learning is associated with a particular an internal state like mood or awareness

163
Q

what is transfer-appropriate processing?

A

matching the task involved with encoding

PSYC221 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY (11 decks)

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