CHAPTER 6 +7 LONG TERM MEMORY Flashcards
what is division?
refers to distinguishing between the different types of memory
why does distinguishing between memories become useful?
divides memory into smaller components
what are the 3 main mechanisms used to determine differences in memories?
behavioural experiments, neuropsychological studies, brain imaging
what is interaction?
refers to the fact that the different types of memory can interact and share mechanisms
define long-term memory
the system responsible for storing information for long periods of time
what does long-term memory serve as?
an archive of information about past events and previously learned knowledge
what important characteristic goes along with how LTM operates and interacts with working memory?
retaining information
describe how long-term memory creates an on going experience
acts as an archive one can refer to when wanting to remember something while using working memory
what is the serial position curve?
plots a % of a group that recalled a word vs where it was positioned on a list
how does one measure data to make a serial position curve?
presenting a list of words to a participant one after another
what is the primacy effect?
when memory is better for items at the beginning of a sequence
why does the primacy effect occur? (3)
there is more time to rehearse the words at the beginning to help transfer to LTM
no other words have been presented
those words have the person’s 100% attention
who presented 20 words at a rate of 1/5s but had participants repeat the words out loud between each?
Dewey Dundus
what did Dundus discover? (2)
the words at the beginning maintained its original serial position curve shape
the number of rehearsals aids to encoding information
what is the recency effect?
when memory is better for items at the end of a sequence
why does the recency effect occur?
the most recently presented words are still in short term memory = easier for them to remember
who had participants recall the words after they counted backwards for 30s after hearing a list of words?
Glanzer and Cuntiz
what did Glanzer and Cuntiz discover?
prevention of rehearsal allowed time for information to get lost in STM to eliminate the recency effect
what is coding?
refers to the form in which stimuli are represented
what is the mental approach to coding?
noting how an experience or stimulus is represented in the mind
what are the 3 types of coding?
visual, audio, semantic
what is visual coding in STM like?
remembering a pattern by representing it visually in the mind
what is visual coding in LTM like?
visualizing a person or place from the past
what is audio coding in STM like?
use of the phonological similarity effect and misidentifying target letters as another that sounds familiar to it
what is audio coding in LTM like?
when someone plays a song in their head
who demonstrated what semantic coding like in STM?
Delos Wickens
how did Delos Wickens demonstrate semantic coding in STM?
presented words that were related to each other and used the release of proactive interference to demonstrate categorization of meaning
what is proactive interference?
when the learning of new material is affected by the interference of old material
what is retroactive interference?
when the recall of old material is interfered by the learning of new material
who demonstrated semantic coding in LTM?
Jaqueline Sachs
how did Sachs demonstrate semantic coding in LTM?
had people listen to an audio tape of a message and measured if they remembered the exact message or just the general meaning of it
what is the recognition memory?
the identification of a stimulus that was encountered earlier
describe the recognition memory method
presentation of a stimulus during a study period and later presenting it with stimulus that was not shown before
asking for a yes or no if the original stimulus was presented again
recall is ______ and recognition memory is _____ on exams
fill in the blank, multiple choice
Henry Molaison experimented on ____ by removing ___
HM, hippocampus on both sides of the brain
what did Henry Molaison do unintendedly?
eliminated HMs ability to form new long term memories but kept his short term memories in tact
what did Molaison discover about the hippocampus’ role in the brain?
it forms long term memories
what did Molaison come to realize about STM and LTM?
they are served by separate brain regions
Patient ___ suffered from damage to his _____
KF, parietal lobe
KF had a functioning LTM but …
showcased a poor STM, digit span, and recency effect
the opposing problems between HM and KF demonstrates ________ & _________
double dissociation & independent mechanisms for both memories
who used brain imaging to examine the role of the hippocampus? how?
Ranganath and D’Esposito and by presenting stimuli while having their brains scanned
what were the 2 conditions of Ranganath and D’Esposito’s experiment?
novel face and familiar face
what did Ranganath and D’Esposito’s experiment show? (3)
activity in the hippocampus increases when seeing novel faces and changes only slightly when seeing familiar faces
hippocampus is involved in retaining novel information in memory = role in STM
separation of LTM and STM is not as separated as once suggested
what 3 considerations were made when establishing/distinguishing between episodic memory and semantic memeory?
type of experience
brain damage effects
fMRI responses
who proposed episodic and semantic memories handle different information types and are distinguished based on experience?
Endel Tulving
when examining differences in experiences, what property does episodic memory have?
mental time travel
what is mental time travel?
the experience of traveling back in time to reconnect with past events
how does semantic memory differ in terms of experience and memory?
involves accessing knowledge that might not be tied to personal experience and demonstrates accessing things we are familiar with
what specific things are involved in semantic memory?
facts, vocabulary, numbers, concepts
when examining neuropsychological evidence, damage to HM’s hippocampus resulted loss in his ____ but still ___________
episodic memory, knows certain things happened
HM knowing his brother died but not remembering hearing about his death nor feelings at the funeral showed he retained his __________
semantic memory
when examining neuropsychological evidence, LP suffered from encephalitis losing her _____ but still _____
semantic memory, remembered events from her life and could still form new episodic memories
LP’s difficulty of recognizing familiar people, shopping list word meanings, and simple locations demonstrates her loss of ______
semantic memory
who had participants keep audiotape diaries of personal events and presented them within an fMRI to compare responses?
Brian Levine
what are the interactions between episodic and semantic memory?
knowledge affecting experience and autobiographical memory
describe how knowledge affects one’s experience
semantic memory guides experiences to influence episodic memory
how does autobiographical memory have both episodic and semantic components?
it involves personal semantic memories
what is autobiographical memory?
memory for specific experiences from life
what are personal semantic memories?
facts associated with personal experiences
who showed that people’s knowledge about public figures can have both semantic and episodic components?
Westmacott and Moscovitch
what are autobiographically significant memories?
semantic memories involving personal episodes
autobiographically significant memories demonstrate how…
experiences related to episodic memories can aid in accessing semantic memories
what are the different degrees of forgetting and remembering?
familiarity and recollection
describe familiarity and state what memory it is associated with
a person or thing seeming familiar but having no memory of experiences related to them/it –> associated to semantic memory
describe recollection and state what memory it is associated with
remembering specific experiences related to the person or thing –> associated with episodic memory
describe the remember/know procedure
presenting stimuli one has encountered before and are asked to respond if they remember, know of, or don’t know that stimulus
in the remember/know procedure, what is “remembering”?
remembering if the stimulus is familiar and remembering the original circumstances it was encountered under
in the remember/know procedure, what is “knowing”?
thinking the stimulus seems familiar but do not remember experiencing it prior
which response in the remember/know procedure has episodic components?
the remember response
which response in the remember/know procedure has semantic components?
the know response
who determined how people’s memory for public events changes over time and presented events from over a 50 year period?
Raluca Petrican
what procedure did Raluca Petrican use when asking participants to determine if they remember, know, or don’t know the event described?
remember/know procedure
what is semanticization of remote memories?
loss of episodic detail for memories of long-ago events
how do episodic and semantic memories change over time?
knowledge within semantic memories is attained through personal experiences but over time the experience will fade and the knowledge will not fade
why is creating possible connections to the future important in memory research?
imagining the future involves the idea of when the future becomes the present and helps us know how to act effectively
loss of episodic memory resulted in patients.. _____
not being able to imagine future personal events
who looked for a link using fMRI to determine how the brain is activated by remembering the past and imagining the future
Donna Rose Addis
what did Donna Rose Addis conclude about brain activity and past/future thinking?
all regions active when thinking of the past are active when thinking of the future
what is the constructive episodic simulation hypothesis?
states that episodic memories are extracted and recombined to construct simulations of future events
who was curious about person perspectives when remembering or imagining the future?
Elanor McDermott
what did Donna Rose Addis suggest about episodic memory?
the episodic memory system is not to remember the past but to enable stimulation of possible future scenarios
what are the 4 mind wandering characteristics
associated with default mode network activation
is extremely prevalent
causes decreasing in performance on attention-required tasks
enables someone to think about the future
based on the 4 characteristics of mind wandering, what can damage to the default mode network do?
causing problems in retrieving autobiographical memories
what are explicit memories?
memories we are aware of
what are implicit memories?
experiences and learning not accompanied by active conscious remembering
what are procedural/skill memories?
memory for doing things that typically involve learned skills
LJS suffered loss of episodic memory but still knew how to lay the violin due to what kind of memory?
procedural/skill memory
procedural memory allows amnesiac patients to ________ even thought they do not remember any of the practice that led to mastery
master new skills
what is mirror drawing?
involves copying a picture that is seen in a mirror
true or false, having a conversation as an infant demonstrates procedural memory
true
what is the main effect of procedural memories?
carrying out skills without thinking about what the person is doing
what is expert-induced amnesia?
when well-learned procedural memories do not require attention
carrying out a skill in an automatic way and the explanation as to how someone carried out that skill is “I didn’t really see it just happened” demonstrates
expert-induced amnesia
LSJ being able to answer questions related to things involving procedural memory demonstrates a link between procedural memory to ______
semantic memory
if LSJ was able to answer “ who painted a specific painting using a special technique of brush stroking?” ; this describes a link between semantic memory and memory involving ______
motor skills
what is priming?
occurs when the presentation of a stimulus changes the way a person responds to another stimulus
what is priming associated with?
implicit memory
what is repetition priming?
occurs when the test stimulus is the same or resembles the priming stimulus
why does priming demonstrate implicit memory?
priming can occur even though participants may not remember the original presentation of the priming stimuli
who tested patients with amnesia to ensure presentation of priming was not remembered?
Peter Graf
what were the 3 groups used in Peter Graf’s amnesia group experiment?
- Korsakoff’s syndrome group
- alcoholics with no amnesia
- control group (no amnesia nor alcohol addiction)
what is Kosakoff’s syndrome?
associated with alcohol abuse and eliminates the ability to form new memories
how did Graf present and execute his experiement?
presented a 10-word list and had participants rate how much they liked each word
how did Graf test his partipants?
test of explicit memory: recall of words they read
implicit memory test: word completion test
what was the word completion test in Peter Graf’s experiement?
completing the 1st 3 letters of each word in the list by adding letters to create the first word that comes to mind
how does one avoid remembering in a priming experiment?
presenting the priming stimulus in a task that does not appear to be a memory task
what is the propaganda effect?
when participants are more likely to rate a previously seen/read statement to be true just because of previous exposure
how does the propaganda effect involve implicit memory?
it can operate when people are not aware they have seen the stimulus prior even if it might’ve been false when presented
what is classical conditioning?
when a neutral and conditioning stimuli are paired to cause a conditioned response to the neutral stimulus
why does classical conditioning involve implicit memory?
it can easily be forgotten what was originally paired with the neutral stimulus
what is operant conditioning?
the strengthened behaviour due to presentation to positive reinforcers or withdrawal of negative ones
what is operant conditioning considered to be the premise of?
superstition
what is operant conditioning considered to be the premise of?
superstition
what is encoding?
the process of acquiring information and transferring into LTM
what is retrieval ?
the bringing of information into consciousness by transferring it from LTM to working memory
when encoding information, what are the 2 kinds of rehearsal commonly used?
maintenance and elbaorative
what is maintenance rehearsal?
rehearsing information without any consideration of meaning or making connections with other information
maintenance rehearsal results in ______
little to no encoding and poor memory
what is elaborative rehearsal?
rehearsing information while considering meaning or making connections to other information
elaborative rehearsal results in ____
better memory
who linked the type of encoding to retrieval and what theory did they use/coin?
Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart, levels of processing theory
describe the levels of processing theory
memory depends on the depth of processing that an item receives
what are the 2 kinds of levels in the levels processing theory?
shallow and deep
what is shallow processing?
involves little attention to meaning and focuses on a words physical features
what is deep processing?
involves close attention and elaborative rehearsal to focus on meaning and relationship
who tested memory following different levels of processing?
Craik and Tulving
what types of questions did Craik and Tulving ask their participants in their levels of processing experiment?
about physical features
about rhyming
fill in the blanks/fitting
in Craik and Tulving’s experiment using levels of processing, match the kinds of questions to the levels of processing
physical = structural = shallow
rhyming = phonemic = deeper
fill in/complete= semantic = deepest
what were the results of Craik and Tulving’s levels of processing experiment?
the deeper processed words were better remembered and memory retrieval is affected by how items are encoded
who tested whether using visual imagery can enhance memory?
Gordon Bower and David Winzez
what did Bower and Winzez use in their visual imagery experiment?
paired-associate learning
what is paired-associate learning?
using a list of word pairs presented and later having the first word of each pair being presented where the participant has to remember the other word in each pairing
how did Bower and Winzez execute their experiment ?
15 pairs of nouns for 5s each and had one group silently repeat and the other forming mental pictures of the words interacting
what were the results of Bower and Winzez’s experiment?
the group that formed mental pictures remembered twice as many words
what is the self-reference effect?
when memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself
how did Erik Leshikar demonstrate the self-reference effect? what were the 2 groups used?
had participants look at a series of adjectives in 2 groups
had self and common condition groups
explain Erik Leshikar’s self and common condition groups
self condition group = indicated if the adjectives described themselves
common condition group= indicated if the words are used commonly
in Erik Lashikar’s experiment, what were the results and what did he conclude?
memory was better for the self condition group
words become linked to something well known
who demonstrated that enhancing of learning and retention of material is better when material is generated rather than passively receiving it?
Norman Slameka and Peter Graf
what is the generation effect?
when self generation of material enhances the learning and retention of it than receiving it passively
what were the 2 groups of Slameka and Graf’s generation effect experiment?
read: reading pairs of related words
generate: fill in the blank with a word related to the first one
both had to reproduce each word pair
what is a retrieval cue?
a word or stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory
how does organization of information assist in a better recall?
uses categories to create a recall list that is more organized than an original randomized list
who measured recall when words were already organized? what did they use?
Gordon Bower , organizational tree
what is an organizational tree?
organizes a number of words according to category
who measured how preventing organization would reduce memory?
John Bransford and Marcia Johnson
how did Bransford and Johnson execute their experiment?
asked participants to read a passage that was difficult to understand and to picture what is going on
what were the results and conclusions of Bransford and Johnsons’s experiment?
a mental framework helps a reader link sentences and makes it easier to remember a passage later
organization of information demonstrates how material is programmed into the mind
who said we can understand memory works when considering function in terms of survival?
James Nairline
what is the retrieval practice effect?
people remember things better if they are tested on them
who demonstrated the retrieval practice effect in an experiement?
Karpicke and Foediger
what is the testing effect?
enhanced performance due to retrieval practice
what is elaboration?
a process that helps transfer learned material into LTM by thinking about what is being read and giving it meaning by relation
what is the spacing effect?
when memory is better when studying into a number of short sessions with breaks in between rather than in a concentrated long session
what is the familiarity effect?
when rereading causes material to become familiar
what is the problem with the familiarity effect?
causes a false indication of knowing the material due to an intendency to interpret it
what is free recall?
simply being asked to recall stimuli
what is cued recall?
words or phrases presented with retrieval cues to aid in the recall of previously experienced stimuli
what are the 3 matching conditions to increase retrieval?
encoding specificity
state-dependent learning
transfer-appropriate processing
what is encoding specificity?
matching the context in which encoding and retrieval occur
what is state-dependent learning? what does it state?
matching the internal mood present during encoding and retrieval
learning is associated with a particular an internal state like mood or awareness
what is transfer-appropriate processing?
matching the task involved with encoding
