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PSYC221 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY > CHAPTER 12 - PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVITY > Flashcards

CHAPTER 12 - PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVITY Flashcards

1
Q

define a problem

A

occurs when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal where it is not obvious how to get around the problem

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2
Q

define a problem how a psychologist would

A

a situation in which you need to accomplish a goal and the solution is not immediately obvious

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3
Q

according to the Gestalt psychologists, what 2 things are involved in problem solving?

A
  1. how people represent the problem in their mind

2. how solving a problem involves a reorganization or reconstructing of this representation

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4
Q

what is restructuring?

A

changing the problem’s representation

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5
Q

what is insight?

A

any sudden comprehension or realization that involves reorganization of a person’s mental representation of a stimulus to interpret what was not initially obvious

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6
Q

who distinguished between insight and non-insight problems?

A

Janet Metcalfe and David Wiebe

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7
Q

what did Metcalfe and Wiebe hypothesize about those working on insight and non-insight problems?

A

insight: should not be good at predicting how near they are to a solution

non-insight: would be more likely to know when they are near a solution

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8
Q

what were the insight problems used in Metcalfe and Wiebe’s insight experiment?

A

triangle problem

chain problem

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9
Q

what is the triangle problem?

A

moving 3 dots on a triangle pointing upwards to make it point downwards

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10
Q

what is the chain problem?

A

given 4 pieces of chain with 3 links and the goal is to join the pieces into a closed loop only having 15cents when it costs 2 cents to open a link and 3 cents to close

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11
Q

what were the non-insight problems used in Metcalfe and Wiebe’s experiment?

A

analytically based problems

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12
Q

what are analytically based problems?

A

problems solved by a process of systematic analysis and using techniques based on past experience

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13
Q

those who were working on insight problems had ___ ratings until the end and then a ___ increase in warmth ratings?

A

cold, sudden

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14
Q

those who were working on non-insight problems had both ___ and ___ ratings that _____ increased over time

A

cold, warm, gradual

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15
Q

what is fixation?

A

people’s tendency to focus on specific characteristics of the problem that keeps them from arriving at the solution

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16
Q

what is functional fixedness?

A

focusing on familiar functions of uses of an object

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17
Q

who used the candle problem?

A

Karl Dunker

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18
Q

what is the candle problem?

A

given a vertical corkboard on the wall, candles, matches, a match box, and tacks; one must mount the candle on the corkboard so it can burn without dripping wax on the floor

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19
Q

what were the 2 groups that Dunker introduced the problem to?

A
  1. box containing materials

2. materials not inside the box

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20
Q

which group found the problem more difficult?

A

the group that had a box as a container to the other materials

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21
Q

what could Dunker conclude about the box and fixation?

A

the boxes were only seen as containers thus they did not think to use it as a mount

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22
Q

what is the two-string problem

A

task is to tie together 2 strings that were hanging from the ceiling given a chair and pliers

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23
Q

what was the hard part of the two-sting problem?

A

the strings were too far away from each other

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24
Q

what is the applied functional fixedness in the two-string problem?

A

thinking the pliers are a set of tools rather than a weight

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25
what is a mental set?
a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem
26
what is the water jug problem?
task is to determine on paper how to obtain a required volume of water given 3 empty jars as measures
27
who studied how participants solve with and without mental sets?
Luchins
28
what were Luchin's 2 groups in his water jug experiment?
1. mental set group: those who solved more problems before target problems thus were exposed to a mental set formula 2. non-mental set group: were only solving the target problems thus were not exposed to a mental set formula
29
what did Luchins observe?
23% of the mental set group used a simpler solution and everyone in the non-mental set group used simpler solutions
30
what did Luchin's conclude about mental set and the water jug problem?
mental set can influence problem solving because of preconceptions about the functions of an object and the way to solve a problem
31
who invented their Logic Theorist computer program designed to simulate human problem solving?
Alan Newell and Herbart Simon
32
according to Newell and Simon, what is problem solving?
a search that occurs between the posing of the problem and its solution
33
what is Newell and Simon's initial state?
conditions at the beginning at the problem
34
what is Newell and Simon's goal state?
the solution to the problem
35
what is the Tower of Hanoi problem?
given 3 pegs with 3 rings that increase in size must all be placed on the right peg based on a set of rules
36
what are Newell and Simon's operators?
actions that take the problem from one state to another
37
what is Newell and Simon's intermediate state?
conditions after each step is made toward the solving a problem
38
what is a problem space?
all possible states that can occur when solving a problem
39
what is means-end analysis?
a way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states
40
what are subgoals?
small goals that help create intermediate states that are closer to the goal
41
what is the multilated checkerboard problem?
asks if a board loses 2 corners, can one cover the remaining squares with 31 dominos if a domino covers 2 squares of the opposite colour
42
what is the principle behind the multilated checkerboard problem?
if the 2 squares that are removed are the same colours, it is not possible to cover the board with 31 dominos
43
who tested that more versions of the multilated checkerboard problem were more likely to lead to the principle
Craig Kaplan and Herbart Simon
44
what were their 4 versions of the multilated checkerboard problem?
1. blank squares 2. coloured: black and pink 3. words black and pink 4. words bread and butter
45
which group solved the modified mulilated checkerboard problem faster?
the bread and butter group
46
what is the think-aloud protocol?
participants are asked to say out loud what they are thinking while solving a problem
47
what is the goal of the think-aloud protocol?
determine what information the person is attending to while solving a problem
48
how did Kaplan and Simon modify their multilated checkerboard problem?
using a story regarding Russian marriage
49
what is analogical problem solving?
using the solution to another similar problem to guide a solution to a new problem
50
what is analogical transfer?
transferring an experience from solving one problem to solving another
51
what is a target problem?
the problem the participant is trying to solve
52
what is the source problem?
another problem that shares some similarities with the target problem and illustrates a way to solve the target problem
53
what was Karl Dunker's radiation problem?
tumor that can only be destroyed with a high intensity ray but that ray will damage surrounding tissue, low intensities of the ray can be used to prevent tissue damage but will not affect the tumor
54
who made participants read and memorize a fortress story giving them the impression they were being tested for memory
Gick and Holyoak
55
what did Gick and Holyoak observe?
reading the fortress story enabled 30% of participants to solve the radiation problem because the situations were similar
56
what do Gick and Holyoak propose are the 3 steps to problem solving
1. noticing 2. mapping 3. applying
57
what is noticing?
seeing the analogous relationship between the source of the problem and the target problem
58
what is mapping?
the correspondence between the source problem elements and the target problem elements
59
what is applying?
using the mapping to generate a parallel situation to the target problem
60
what is analogical encoding?
process by which 2 problems are compared and similarities between them are determined
61
who demonstrated that it is possible to get participants to notice by having them compare 2 cases that illustrate a principle
Dedre Genter and Susan Goldin-Meadow
62
what were the 2 negotiation strategies Genter and Goldin-Meadow taught their paritcipants?
trade off and contingency
63
what is a trade off strategy?
where one person says to another ill give you A if you give me B
64
what is a contingency stratgey?
where a person gets what they want if something else happens
65
after receiving 2 cases and coming up with a negotiation for both and then given a new test problem, what strategy did they tend to use
the same one they were exposed to in the sample cases
66
what did Genter and Goldin-Meadow conclude about analogical encoding?
comparing source stories in an effective way gets people to pay attention to problem features that enhance their ability to solve other problems
67
Kevin Dunbar coined the term ____?
analogical paradox
68
what is analogical paradox?
real-world examples of analogical problem solving
69
what is in-vivo problem solving research?
involves observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situaitons
70
define expert
people who devote a large number of time to learning about a field and practicing/applying that learning
71
experts solve problems __ and with ___ success rates than novices
faster, higher
72
what are 3 differences between experts and novices?
1. possess more knowledge about their fields 2. their knowledge is organized differently 3. spend more time analyzing problems
73
who demonstrated that expertise is only an advantage in an expert's specialty
James Voss
74
what is divergent thinking
thinking that is open-ended involving a large number of potential solutions
75
what is James Kaufman's viewpoint on divergent thinkning?
it is the cornerstone of creativity but is not all that creativity can be
76
according to Kaufman, what else can creativity be?
1. a creative response must be useful | 2. creativity is anything made by people that is in someway novel and has potential value or utility
77
what is practical creativity?
involves a lengthy trial-and-error development to turn the idea into something useful
78
who showed that providing examples to people before they solve a problem can influence the nature of their solutions
Steven Smith
79
what is Alex Osborn's group brainstorming?
encourages people to freely express their ideas that might be useful in solving a particular problem
80
why does group brainstorming result in fewer ideas?
many people dominate the discussion so others are not able to participate paying attention to others ideas keeps them from coming up with their own
81
what is Ronald Finke's creative cognition?
training people to think creatively
82
what are pre-inventive forms?
ideas that precede the creation of a finished creative product
83
what is the nine-dot problem?
draw 4 straight lines that pass through all 9 dots without lifting the pen from the paper or retracting the line
84
why is the nine-dot problem difficult?
people's tendency to perceive elements as grouped together
85
who demonstrated that the left anterior temporal lobe is associated with grouping lower-level information into meaningful problems?
Richard Chi and Alan Snyder
86
what did Chi and Snyder use in their experiement?
transcranial direct current stimulation
87
how did Chi and Snyder use transcranial direct current stimulation?
to deactivate the left anterior temporal lobe and activate the right anterior temporal lobe
88
what is transcranial direct current stimulation?
procedure to stimulate the brain using 2 kinds of electrodes
89
what are the 2 electrodes used in transcranial direct current stimulation?
cathodal electrode anodal electrode
90
what does a cathodal electrode do??
is it negatively charged and decreases the excitability of neurons under the electrode
91
what does an anodal electrode do?
it is positively charged and increases the excitability of neurons under the electrode
92
what did Chi and Snyder observe and conclude?
40% could solve the nine-dot problem deactivating the brain that causes people to interpret the world in certain ways can help someone think outside the box
93
who showed whether a problem is solved by an insight-driven or analytic process is associated with the state the brain is in just before the problem is presented
John Kounios
94
what kind of problem did Kounios use in his brain state experiment?
compound remote-associate problem
95
what is the compound remote-associate problem?
when 3 words are presented and the task is to determine one word that when combined with each of these words forms a new word or phrase
96
EEG activity was increased in the ___ just before insight solutions
frontal lobe
97
EEG activity was increased in the ___ before non-sight solutions
occipital
98
what did Kounios conclude?
the status of you brain before you begin a problem can influence the approach you take in solving it
99
what is the default mode network?
brain network that decreases when a person is involved in a specific task and increases when a person is not focused on a specific task
100
who connected mind wandering and creativity based on the observation that when a person is working on a problem but cannot solve it - the solution will appear when they put the problem aside
Benjamin Baird
101
what is incubation?
getting ideas after taking a time out from working on a problem
102
what is alternate-use task?
when participants have 2 minutes to come up with unusual cues for common objects
103
who studied if there was a connection between creativity and DMN?
Naama Mayseless
104
describe Maysless' experiment
participants were presented with an object and had to come up with one possible use for it
105
what was the key variable in Mayseless' experiment?
the originality of the proposed cues
106
___ originality was associated with higher activity in DMN structures
higher
107
what is the executive control network?
network involved win directing attention as a person is carrying out a tasks
108
who demonstrated a link between ECN and creativity?
Melissa Ellamil
109
describe Ellamil's experiment
had participants design a book cover in an fMRI to determine brain activity areas instructed to design in 2 phases
110
what were the 2 phases Ellamil has her participants design a book cover
1. after reading what the book was about | 2. re-evaluating what they originally designed
111
what did Ellamil observe?
ECN and DMN activity were higher in idea evaluation than generating
112
what did Ellamil conclude?
the ECN is associated with creative evaluation

PSYC221 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY (11 decks)

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