Chapter 8 & 9 - Data Collection Methods I Flashcards
Primary sources of data
Individuals
Focus groups
Unobtrusive (trace) measures
Two types of Data Collection
Qualitative
Quantitative
Qualitative Data Collection
Interviews
-Depth Interviews
-Focus Groups
-Case Studies
-ProjectiveTechniques
Observation
-Human
-Electronic
Quantitative Data Collection
Self-Completion Surveys
-Regular mail
- Overnight delivery
-Fax
-Internet
-Drop off/pick up
Interviewer-Completed Surveys
-Telephone
-Shopping Mall
-Home, Office, etc
Observation
-Human
-Electronic
-Mechanical
Interviews
-A conversation with a purpose
-Powerful tool for eliciting rich data, but complex
-Degrees of structure (continuum)
– Both for questions and responses
– Structured; semi-structured; unstructured
-Interviewer as data collection instrument
– Face-to-face vs. telephone interviews
Interview Structure
-Structured
-Unstructured
-Semi-structured
Structured Interview Structure
– Known at the outset what information is needed
– Predetermined questions and question sequence
* Interview conducted in exactly the same way to avoid bias
– May contain standardized rater forms
Unstructured Interview Structure
– Interviewer only has a broad problem area in mind
– No specific question sequence; free and open discussion
– Can work in very new areas, but often not very practical
Semi-structured Interview Structure
– Have overall structure and direction, but allow for follow-up
questions
* Introduction, set of topics (questions), possible probes
Considerations for a semi-structured interview
– Plan main questions using clear and familiar language
– Use open-ended questions (vs. inviting “yes-no” responses)
* E.g., “What do you think about…”; “How did you learn to…”
– More general questions first, then more specific ones (i.e., funneling)
– Use probes to gather more information or to clarify (see Box 8.2)
* E.g., “Could you tell me more about…”
– Be neutral: Avoid leading questions or suggesting responses
– Listen actively
* Body language; ask clarifying questions; paraphrase to ensure
understanding; wait out pauses (Box 8.2 again)
– Keep respondents on track (politely)
Bias in Interviewing
Interviewer
– Interviewer biases and errors in perception
– Importance of interviewer training
Interviewee (participant)
– Social desirability
– Question comprehension
Situation
– Nonparticipation (i.e., nonresponse bias)
– Level of rapport between interviewer and interviewee
– Mode, timing, and physical setting of the interview
Observation is scientific when it:
– Serves a formulated research purpose
– Is planned systematically
– Is recorded systematically
– Is subjected to certain checks and controls for quality
Four key dimensions of observation
-Control
-group membership
-structure
-concealment
Two Important Approaches of observation
- Participant observation
- Structured observation
Observation Advantages
– Can gather behavioural data without asking questions
* Data relatively free from respondent bias
– Relatively easy to observe situational factors
* BUT (often) cannot establish cause-effect relationships
– Can observe difficult-to-study subjects (e.g., children)
Observation Disadvantages
– Reactivity
– Observer biases may affect the data
– Cannot capture cognitive processes
– Can be time consuming, tedious, and expensive
Unobtrusive methods
Methods that do not require the researcher to interact with the
people he or she is studying.
Interview
A data collection method in which the researcher asks for
information verbally from the respondents.
Unstructured interviews
Interviews conducted with the primary purpose of identifying
some important issues relevant to the problem situation, without
prior preparation of a planned or predetermined sequence of
questions.
Semi-structured interviews
Interviews conducted by the researcher with a predetermined list
of questions to be asked of the interviewee. are those conducted when it is known at the outset what information is needed.
Bias
Any error that creeps into the data. Biases can be introduced by
the researcher, the respondent, the measuring instrument, the
sample, and so on.
Funneling technique
The questioning technique that consists of initially asking general
and broad questions, and gradually narrowing the focus
thereafter to more specific themes.
Unbiased questions
Questions posed in accordance with the principles of wording and
measurement, and the right questioning technique, so as to elicit
the least biased responses.
Computer‐assisted telephone interviews (CATI)
Interviews in which questions are prompted onto a PC monitor
that is networked into the telephone system, to which
respondents provide their answers.
Telephone interview
The information‐gathering method by which the interviewer asks
the interviewee over the telephone, rather than face to face, for
information needed for the research.
Face‐to‐face interview
Information gathering when both the interviewer and interviewee
meet in person.
Focus group
A group consisting of eight to ten members randomly chosen,
who discuss a product or any given topic for about two hours with
a moderator present, so that their opinions can serve as the basis
for further research.
Expert panel
A group of people specifically convened by the researcher to elicit
expert knowledge and opinion about a certain issue.
Observation
The planned watching, recording, analysis, and interpretation of
behavior, actions, or events.
Controlled observation
Controlled observation occurs when observational research is
carried out under carefully arranged conditions.
Uncontrolled observation
An observational technique that makes no attempt to control,
manipulate, or influence the situation.
Nonparticipant observation
The researcher is never directly involved in the actions of the
actors, but observes them from outside the actors’ visual horizon,
for instance via a one‐way mirror or a camera.
Participant observation
In participant observation the researcher gathers data by
participating in the daily life of the group or organization under
study.
Structured observation
Form of observation where the observer has a predetermined set
of categories of activities or phenomena planned to be studied.
Unstructured observation
Form of observation that is used when the observer has no
definite ideas of the particular aspects that need focus.
Concealment of observation
Relates to whether the members of the social group under study
are told that they are being observed.
Concealed observation
Members of a social group under study are not told that they are
being observed.
Reactivity
The extent to which the observer affects the situation under
observation.
Unconcealed observation
Members of a social group under study are told that they are
being observed.
Pure observation
Seeks to remove the researcher from the observed actions and
behavior; the researcher is never directly involved in the actions
and behavior of the group under study.
Pure participation
The researcher becomes so involved with the group under study
that eventually every objectivity and research interest is lost.
Rapport
A trusting relationship with the social group under study, by
showing respect, being truthful, and showing commitment to the
well‐being of the group or the individual members of the group,
so that they feel secure in sharing (sensitive) information with the
researcher
Coding scheme
Contains predetermined categories for recording what is
observed. Such schemes come in many forms and shapes.
Simple checklist
Checklist used in structured observation that provides
information about how often a certain event has occurred.
Sequence record
A sequence record allows the researcher conducting an
observational study to collect information on how often an event
occurs.
Validity
Evidence that the instrument, technique, or process used to
measure a concept does indeed measure the intended concept.
Reliability
Attests to the consistency and stability of the measuring
instrument.
