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Cadaver > Chapter 8 > Flashcards

Chapter 8 Flashcards

1
Q

Kidney

A 
Hilum
Renal cortex
Renal medulla
Minor calyx
Major calyx
Renal pelvis
Ureter
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2
Q

Renal medulla

A

Renal pyramid
Renal papilla
Renal column

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3
Q

Female anatomy

A 
Ovaries
Uterine tubes
-Infundibula
-Fimbriae
Uterus
-Uterine cavity
-Cervix
--Cervical canal
Vagina
Vulva
Mons pubis
Labia majora/minora
Vestibule
Clitoris
Vaginal orifice
External urethral orifice
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4
Q

Male anatomy

A 
Seminal glands
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral glands
Scrotum
Testes
Epididymis
Ductus deferens
Spermatic cords
Prostatic urethra
Intermediate urethra
Spongy urethra
External urethral orifice 
Penis
Corpora cavernosa
Corpus spongiosum
Glans penis
Prepuce
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5
Q

Branches of abdominal aorta

A 
Celiac trunk
Superior mesenteric artery
Renal arteries
Gonadal arteries
Inferior mesenteric artery
Common iliac arteries
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6
Q

Celiac trunk

A

Splenic artery
Common hepatic a.
L gastric a.

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7
Q

Common iliac arteries

A

Internal iliac arteries

External iliac arteries

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8
Q

Tributaries of the IVC:

A 
Internal iliac veins
External iliac veins
Common iliac veins
Renal veins
Gonadal veins
Hepatic veins
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9
Q

Hepatic portal system:

A

Splenic vein
Superior mesenteric vein
Hepatic portal vein

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10
Q

3 major dissections

A

1) completion of abdominal cavity organs (kidneys)
2) pelvic cavity (reproductive structures and vasculature)
3) vasculature and nerves (specifically posterior wall vasculature and the lumbar plexus)

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11
Q

3 key muscles on the posterior wall of abdominal cavity

A

Psoas major, iliacus ,and quadratus lumborum

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12
Q

one nerve (or 2) crossing the quadratus lumborum

A

iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal nerves

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13
Q

nerve crossing the iliacus muscle

A

lateral femoral cutaneous nerve

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14
Q

femoral nerve

A

largest nerve of the lumbar plexus

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15
Q

hysterectomy

A

uterus removed

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16
Q

Gonadal vessels

A

non gender reproductive vessels

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17
Q

waste from kindey

A

uric acid, hemoglobin breakdown, metabolites from hormones, pesticides, and food additives

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18
Q

kidneys help maintain our

A

acid/base balance in the body

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19
Q

acids in our body

A

sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid (the byproducts of amino acid metabolism)

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20
Q

blood pH is too basic, what would you suspect the kidneys need to absorb, or excrete?

A

see an increase in the excretion of bicarbonate

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21
Q

because bicarbonate concentrations would be greater

A

we should see a more basic urine

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22
Q

Kidneys can also regulate erythrocyte production

A

by secreting erythropoietin

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23
Q

Erythropoietin (EPO)

A

upon release acts on the bone marrow by stimulating red blood cell (RBC) production

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24
Q

What medical intervention can be done to helps mitigate these disastrous effects?

A

A type of dialysis, which uses a man-made filter that helps “clean” the blood by filtering it in place of the kidneys.

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25
Q

How can the kidneys can monitor blood volume?

A

This is carried out by a hormonal cascade called the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). It starts when cells within the kidneys that act as mechanoreceptors detect a drop in either fluid volume or blood pressure

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26
Q

renin

A

enzyme from granular cells within the kidney, that releases to the response of a drop in blood volume

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27
Q

renin will then combine with angiotensinogen

A

which is continuously being released by the liver, to form angiotensin I (where it needs to be activated)

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28
Q

angiotensin-­converting enzyme (ACE)

A

activates angiotensin I to angiotensin II

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29
Q

ACE can be released from

A

several different tissues, but the lungs are a prime example

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30
Q

Ace can metabolize other peptides, resulting in?

A

vasoconstriction

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31
Q

Angiotensin II

A

“primary effector” of the RAAS

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32
Q

Two things will happen to Angiotensin II:

A

1) acts on the adrenal gland to release the hormone aldosterone
2) can act directly on the vasculature to stimulate vasoconstriction.

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33
Q

Aldosterone

A

stimulates reabsorption of NaCl and H2O

—water follows sodium so an increase in blood volume will lead to increased arterial pressure.

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34
Q

Vasoconstriction

A

will reduce the amount of “space” in the lumen of blood vessels, and therefore also lead to an increase in arterial pressure

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35
Q

what helps regulate blood volume/blood pressure?

A

renin-­angiotensin-­aldosterone system (RAAS)

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36
Q

glomerulus

A

surrounded by a Bowman’s capsule, where filtration occurs; fluids and solutes are forced through the glomerulus passively

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37
Q

what marks the start of the tubule system of the kidney?

A

the glomerulus

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38
Q

PCT cells

A

principal cells and intercalated cells.

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39
Q

principle cells

A

involved with water and Na+ balance,

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40
Q

intercalated cells

A

help maintain acid/base balance

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41
Q

what makes up the nephron system of the kidney?

A

proximal convoluted tubules (PCT) and distal convoluted tubules (DCT)

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42
Q

3 hormones involved in kidney function

A

aldosterone, ADH (anti-­diuretic hormone), and PTH

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43
Q

aldosterone primary function

A

released from the adrenal gland, it increases blood volume (thus pressure) by increasing Na+ reabsorption in the kidney tubules

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44
Q

ADH

A

is triggered by an imbalance in extracellular fluid osmolality (the ratio of water to solutes), from a state of dehydration

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45
Q

where is ADH released from?

A

from the posterior pituitary gland and inhibits diuresis, or urine output. It specifically acts on principal cells by upregulating aquaporins, which increase water permeability

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46
Q

PTH

A

released from the parathyroid glands to increase Ca2+ reabsorption, specifically by acting on the distal tubule cells in the kidney

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47
Q

where do excretions of the kidney moving through these tubules drain into

A

collecting duct system, which will eventually bring urine to the bladder via the urethra

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48
Q

Adrenal glands

A

“little hat”

-adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex

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49
Q

adrenal medulla

A

secretes catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine)

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50
Q

adrenal cortex

A

secretes corticosteroids

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51
Q

Catecholamines

A

released in response to sympathetic stimulation, vasoconstriction

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52
Q

2 types of corticosteroids

A

mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids

53
Q

principal mineralocorticoid hormone

A

aldosterone, which accounts for about 90% of all mineralocorticoid activity, and affect electrolytes of the extracellular fluid (potassium and sodium)

54
Q

glucocorticoids

A

result in increased glucose levels in the blood, can also effect both protein and fat metabolism

55
Q

the major glucocorticoid hormone is that increases glucose

concentrations?

A

Cortisol, which accounts for approximately 95% of all glucocorticoid activity

56
Q

The release of mineralcorticoids and glucocorticoids are

A

a long-­term stress response that are stimulated by a hormonal cascade beginning in the hypothalamus.

57
Q

when the hypothalamus detects stress, it will?

A

releases CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone), which then stimulates the anterior pituitary to release ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone). The target tissues of ACTH are located in the adrenal cortex, which then release mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids

58
Q

Spleen

A

“body’s largest filter of blood”, a lymphoid organ

59
Q

spleen filters by

A

removing aged erythrocytes (red blood cells) as well as debris and other foreign matter, iron stores can also be found which will be used to make future hemoglobin

60
Q

organ with antibacterial and

antifungal immune activity?

A

the spleen

61
Q

tissues in the spleen can produce

A

antibodies

62
Q

process of spermatogenesis

A

74 days

63
Q

400 million sperm per day

A

in a young healthy male

64
Q

seminiferous tubules

A

intertwining tubes within the testicle, join the epdidymis

65
Q

germ cell ->

A

spermatid

66
Q

where are sperm housed and stored

A

in the epididymis to achieve maturation prior to ejaculation

67
Q

Once ejaculation has been initiated

A

the sperm travels through what is called an accessory duct system

68
Q

accessory duct system

A

sperm travels going from the epididymis, through the ductus (or vas) deferens to the ejaculatory duct, and finally through the urethra to exit the penis

69
Q

vasectomy

A

cutting the vas, sperm can no longer reach the ejaculatory duct and urethra from the epididymis

70
Q

how is semen produced?

A

the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbo-­urethral glands (or Cowper’s glands)

71
Q

semen

A

is necessary to “house” the sperm and facilitate its travel within the female reproductive system

72
Q

10%

A

of sperm in semen, 20-150 million sperm per mL

73
Q

total ejaculate amount

A

2-5mL

74
Q

The seminal vesicles join with the vas deferens to form the

A

ejaculatory duct and account for about 70% of the total volume of
semen

75
Q

prostate gland

A

releasing a milky white colored fluid that activates sperm and makes up about 33% of the total semen volume

76
Q

Cowper’s gland

A

produces a thick, clear mucus which drains the spongy urethra and also aids in lubrication of the glans penis, neutralizing and lubricating the urethra prior to ejaculation

77
Q

semen pH

A

alkaline, 7.2-­8.0 pH.

78
Q

sperm does not thrive in

A

acidic conditions

79
Q

prostaglandins

A

enzymes, as well as clotting factors in semen

80
Q

Prostaglandin presence in the semen

A

helps to decrease the viscous nature of the cervical mucus as well as stimulates reverse peristalsis of the uterus to help sperm movement towards the
Fallopian tubes.

81
Q

clotting factors

A

will help prevent semen “leakage” post-­copulation and “stick” coagulated semen to the cervical walls

82
Q

testosterone

A

regulates sperm production

83
Q

testosterone stimulates

A

spermatogenesis, and drives libido as well as the maturation of sex organs

84
Q

how is testosterone regulated?

A

by the HPG axis and the main hormones involved are GnRH (gonadotropic releasing hormone), LH (leutenizing hormone), and FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)

85
Q

hypothalamus releases GnRH

A

stimulating the anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH.

86
Q

In males, FSH stimulates

A

spermatogenesis indirectly by stimulating the release of a protein called, androgen binding protein (ABP), from Sertoli cells

87
Q

androgen binding protein (ABP)

A

upregulates testosterone production by binding to testosterone and keeping it within the cells of the testicle.

88
Q

the more localized testosterone is present within the testes,

A

the more spermatogenesis will occur

89
Q

LH binds to cells (Leydig cells) that surround the seminiferous tubules

A

stimulating more testosterone production

90
Q

testosterone can actually negative feedback on itself

A

once concentrations reach a certain threshold, these elevated testosterone levels can act on the hypothalamus to reduce the release of GnRH, thus inhibiting LH and FSH release.
or
It can also act
on the anterior pituitary to reduce the release of LH and FSH.

91
Q

inhibin

A

released by Sertoli cells (cells within the seminiferous tubules) when it detects that sperm counts are high, it will then negatively feedback on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to reduce testosterone production

92
Q

fertilization occurs in

A

the fallopian tubes, the ampulla region

93
Q

Once a sperm and the oocyte have joined

A

an embryo moves inferiorly down the Fallopian tube and into the uterus where it will then implant into the uterine wall and begin development.

94
Q

Menstruation

A

blood loss experienced by the female because of the shedding of the endometrium layer of the uterus

95
Q

start of menstruation is the first day of the menstrual cycle

A

4-­7 days

96
Q

ovulation

A

hormones facilitate an oocyte to be developed and expelled from the ovary, around day 14

97
Q

during ovulation

A

the endometrium, is thickening to prepare for embryo implantation

98
Q

When no pregnancy occurs

A

the lining begins to weaken because of hormonal changes and is eventually sloughed off, resulting in menses and the cycle starts all over again

99
Q

ovarian cycle

A

follicular phase and the luteal phase

100
Q

follicular phase time

A

first half of the cycle, days 1-­14

101
Q

luteal phase time

A

second half, days 14-­28.

102
Q

dominant follicle

A

is chosen during the follicular phase and it begins to secrete a lot of estrogen

103
Q

high levels of estrogen

A

result in a surge of FSH and LH

104
Q

FSH is the primary driver behind follicular waves

A

is the hormone that determines the “dominant follicle”

105
Q

LH plays a role during the follicular waves

A

its main job includes initiation of ovulation—rupture of the follicle to release the oocyte.

106
Q

Follicular waves

A

waves of follicles, around 3-­7, that build up towards the surface of the ovary and then digress and eventually become the dominant follicle

107
Q

dominant follicle

A

“dominates” over the others to finally surface on the ovary and subsequently rupture, releasing an oocyte

108
Q

luteal phase

A

corpus luteum, forms in place of where the follicle previously ruptured and it releases progesterone, which helps build up the endometrium

109
Q

“the pregnancy hormone”

A

progesterone

110
Q

In the early weeks of pregnancy

A

the release of progesterone from the CL helps maintain the pregnancy until the placenta itself takes over and produces more progesterone, usually after the 4th month of gestation

111
Q

Corpus luteum

A

will degenerate into eventual disappearance to the point where there are no remaining signs of any rupture of the ovarian wall

112
Q

progesterone concentrations are elevated in the luteal phase

A

estrogen concentrations are also at a slightly greater concentration largely due to its initial peak from the dominant follicle that carries through the luteal phase.

113
Q

hormones supporting and building up the endometrium layer

A

estrogen and progesterone

114
Q

LH hormone peaks during ovulation

A

because it is the primary hormone to initiate ovulation

115
Q

when the ovarian wall ruptures where the dominant follicle has surfaced

A

an oocyte is released

116
Q

Approximately 1-­2% of all ovulations result in

A

more than 1 oocyte being expelled, increasing the chance of fraternal twins

117
Q

Around the time of ovulation, the Fallopian tubes

A

bend towards the ovary and “drape” it while the fimbriae stiffen and surround the ovary, This helps to “catch” the oocyte

118
Q

ectopic pregnancies

A

no continuous tissues connecting the ovary to the Fallopian tubes

119
Q

What keeps the ovary and Fallopian tube in close proximity to each other?

A

ovarian ligament, round ligament, broad ligament

120
Q

ovarian ligament

A

anchors the ovary to the body of the uterus

121
Q

round ligament

A

which traverses through the inguinal canal, connects the uterine tubes to the labia majora

122
Q

broad ligament

A

is a sheet of peritoneum that acts as a “mesentery” containing important vasculature to bring nutrient-­rich blood to the uterus and ovaries.

123
Q

peristalsis and beating cilia

A

help to move the oocyte towards sperm that have been awaiting its arrival in the ampulla

124
Q

two layers of the uterine wall

A

the myometrium (a muscle layer), and the perimetrium (the outermost, serous layer)

125
Q

uterine cycle

A

focuses on how thick the endometrium layer is

126
Q

During the menstrual phase of the uterine cycle (days 1-­5)

A

the endometrium layer would be thinnest since it is in the process of being sloughed off.

127
Q

proliferative phase (days 5-­14)

A

endometrium thicken as well as some vascularization

128
Q

secretory phase (days 14-28)

A

endometrium is thickest and the vascularization is greatest in preparation for that possible embryo that could come “tumbling” down the Fallopian tube

Cadaver (10 decks)

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