Chapter 7 Flashcards
Memory
-the retention of information over time
Memory Illusion
-false but subjectively compelling memory
The Paradox of Memory
-our memory is amazing in some cases but terrible in others
When recalling an event, we actively ______ an event rather than passively _________ it.
reconstruct; reproduce
Hyperthymestic Syndrome
-aka highly superior autobiographical memory
-when people can recall every detail of every day in perfect clarity
Sensory Memory
-brief storage of perceptual information before it is passed to short-term memory
Iconic Memory
-visual sensory memory
Echoic Memory
-auditory sensory memory
Span
-how much information each system can hold
Duration
-how long the system can hold the information
Why is sensory memory important?
-acts as a buffer area
-buys our brains time to process incoming sensations
-fill in blanks
Who studied sensory memory extensively in 1960?
George Sperling
Method of Partial Report
-used by Sperling
-showed 12 letters
-presented a high, medium, or low tone to signal which of the 3 rows of letters to report
What did Sperling find?
-iconic sensory memory lasts about a second
Eidetic (Photographic) Memory
-hold a visual image in their mind with such clarity they can describe it perfectly
-very rare
What might explain Eidetic memory?
-unusually long sensory memory duration
How long do echoic memories last?
5-10 seconds
Short-Term (working) Memory
memory system that retains information for limited durations
Why is it call a working memory?
-it is information we are currently thinking about/ actively working with
What is the estimated duration of short-term memory?
no greater than 20 seconds (without control processes)
Control Processes
-things we can do to keep refreshing into in STM do it doesn’t disappear
-ie. repeating words over and over
The Peterson’s STM Experiment
-give a list of items to remember
-give a distractor task
-ask them to recall the list
Decay
fading of information from memory over time
Interference
loss of information from memory because of competition from added information
Proactive Interference
interference with acquisition of new information due to previous learning of information
Retroactive Interference
interference with retention of old information due to acquisition of new information
Magic Number
-the span of STM according to George Miller
-7 +/- 2 items
-due to learning
Digit Span Test
-test of the magic number
-most adults can remember 5-9 items
Chunking is a way to _________ STM ________.
increase; capacity
Chunking
group items into larger bits to extend span of STM
Rehearsal
-repeating information to extend the duration of STM retention
-promotes likelihood to transfer to LTM
Maintenance Rehearsal
repeating stimuli in their original form to retain STM
Elaborative Rehearsal
linking stimuli to each other in a meaningful way to retain STM
_________ rehearsal usually works better than __________ rehearsal.
Elaborative; maintenance
Levels of Processing
depth of transforming information, which influences how well we remember it
LOP says the more __________ we engage, the more we will remember.
meaningfully
Shallow LOP
-worst level
-ie. visual processing is the most shallow
Deep LOC
-best level
-ie. semantic (meaning related) is the deepest
Long-Term Memory
-relatively enduring
-can last from minutes to years
-stored regarding facts, experiences, skills
LTM/STM (choose) has a much larger capacity.
LTM
LTM/STM (choose) has a much longer duration.
LTM
What are errors in LTM usually due to?
-mistakes related to semantic/meaning
-ie. poodle vs. terrier
What are errors in STM usually due to?
-acoustic; mixing up info based on a similar sounding item
-ie. poodle vs. noodle
Permastore
-type of LTM that appears to be permanent
Serial Position Effect (Curve)
-U-shaped relationship between a word’s position in a list and its probability of recall
Primacy Effect
tendency to remember words at the BEGINNING of a list especially well
Recency Effect
tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well
von Restorff Effect
tendency to remember stimuli that stick out over other stimuli
Explicit Memory
-subdivision of LTM
-recalled intentionally, with conscious awareness
-ie. semantic and episodic
Implicit Memory
-subdivision of LTM
-not deliberately remembered or consciously reflected on
-ie. procedural, priming, conditioning, habituation
Semantic Memory
our knowledge of the facts about the world
Episodic Memory
recollection of events in our lives
Procedural Memory
memory for how to do things (motor skills and habits)
Priming
our ability to identify a stimulus more easily or more quickly after we’ve encountered a similar stimulus
Encoding
process of getting information into our memory banks
Storage
the process by which information is maintained over time
Retrieval
the recall or reconstruction of information from LTM for use
Encoding
-process of getting information into our memory banks
Encoding is linked with ________
attention
___________ hinders encoding
distraction
Next-in-line Effect
-explained by encoding
-preoccupied about what you were thinking that you didn’t pay attention to what the other person was saying
Mnemonic
-a learning aid, strategy, or device that enhances recall
How do mnemonics operate?
by enhancing encoding
First-letter Technique
-a mnemonic technique
-create an acronym using the first letter of each to-be-remembered item in a list
-ie. Roy G. Biv
*Visual Based Mnemonics
-bizarre and interactive imagery
Pegword Method
-used to remember lists
-memorizing the list of items that rhyme and then associating newly remembered items
Method of Loci
-memory strategy which relies on using visual mental imagery of places
-putting to-be-remembered items in visualized space
Storage
process of keeping information in memory
Schema
organized knowledge structure or mental model that we’ve stored in memory
What does a schema assist with?
interpreting new situations and reducing the amount of info we need to store
Script
-a special type of schema where the order of events is set
-ie. in a restaurant
Oversimplification
-a memory error as a result of a schema
-produce memory illusions
Retrieval
reactivation or reconstruction of experiences from our memory stores (from LTM to conscious awareness)
Many memory errors are a failure in _____, not ______.
retrieval; encoding
Retrieval Cues
hints that make it easier for us to recall information
3 Ways to Measure Retrieval
- recall testing
- recognition testing
- relearning
Recall
generating previously remembered information ie. Short Answer Questions
Two Steps in Recall
-generating an answer
-determining whether it seems correct
Recognition
selecting previously remembered information from an array of options ie. multiple choice questions
Relearning
-reacquiring knowledge that we’d previously learned but largely forgotten over time
Relearning: Ebbinghaus
-concluded the second time you learn something it is always faster
-called it “savings”
Ebbinghaus: Law of Disturbed vs. Massed Practice
-Disturbed: studying information in small increments over time
-Masses: studying in large increments over shorter amount of time
Is disturbed or massed more effective?
disturbed leads to more effective retrieval
Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) Phenomenon
experiencing of knowing that we know something but not being able to access it
What does TOT express?
an error with retrieval rather than encoding
Encoding Specificity
phenomenon of remembering something better when the conditions under which we retrieve (test) info is the same as which we encoded it (studying)
Context-Dependent Learning
-superior retrieval of memories when the external context of the original memories matches the retrieval context
-ie. divers studying on land vs. underwater
State-Dependent Learning
-superior retrieval of memories when the organism is in the same physiological or psychological state as during encoding
-internal
-ie. studying when sad vs. happy and taking test sad vs. happy
Engram
physical trace of each memory in the brain
Assemblies
-organized groups of neurons in the brain
-a suggestion where engrams are located
Long-term Potentiation (LTP)
the gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation
What change does LTP have?
-more neurotransmitters in presynaptic vesicles
-more receptor sites for these NTs in postsynaptic neurons
How does neuron activation change?
-less stimulation needed for more action potentials
Where is LTP prominent?
-hippocampal neurons
-amygdala
-neocortex
What does LTP show?
engrams do not exist and memories are instead diffusely stored
Hippocampus
-plays a crucial role in memory
-doesn’t store memories itself
-activated to strengthen neural connections
-needed for encoding
What is the biggest storage in the brain?
prefrontal cortex
Generalized Amnesia
-losing all memory of their past life
-very rare
Amnesia Recovery
occurs slowly, if at all
Retrograde Amnesia
loss of information that happened in the past
Anterograde Amnesia
-an inability to form new long-term memories
-most common type
Where do emotional memories originiate?
amygdala and hippocampus
Amygdala & Emotional Memory
helps recall emotions associated with fear
Hippocampus & Emotional Memory
helps us recall the event itself
Patient SM
-amygdala damage
-remembered facts about the fear-producing experience but not the fear
Patient WS
-hippocampal damage
-remembered the fear but not the facts about the experience
When does memory deterioration usually begin?
after age 65, but not always
What is the most frequent cause of dementia?
Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s Disease
-results in memory and language loss
-consistent with cortical tissue loss
-no cure
Dementia
severe memory loss
Memory span increases until age…
12
Meta-memory
knowledge about our own memory abilities and limitations
Infantile Amnesia
inability of adults to remember personal experiences that took place at an early age
Why do infants lack a sense of self?
partially developed hippocampus
Flashbulb Memory
emotional memory that is extraordinarily vivid and detailed
Source Monitoring Confusion
lack of clarity about the origin of a memory
Wishful Thinking Bias
leads people to make source monitoring errors
Cryptomnesia
failure to recognize that our ideas originated with someone else
Suggestive Memory Technique
procedure that encourages patients to recall memories that may or may not have taken place
Misinformation Effect
creation of fictitious memories by providing misleading information about an event after it takes place
Misleading Post-event Information (MPI)
the misleading information that forced you to make a false recollection
Can we implement false memories?
usually if the information is plausible and contains some truth
Eyewitness Testimony
-far from accurate especially when the other person is a different race, they talk to other witnesses, catch only a brief glimpse, are stressed, weapon involved
Weapon Focus
when a crime involves a weapon, people focus on the weapon rather than the perpetrators appearance
Cognitive Interviewing
a procedure to interview witnesses that is based on what is known about memory retrieval and errors
Elements of Cognitive Interviewing
-no interrupting witnesses
-multidimensional
-benign questions that may be a retrieval cue
-gather statements quickly
-rely on reports right after event
-use other forms of evidence too
