Chapter 1 - Psychology and Scientific Thinking Flashcards
Psychology
-the scientific study of the mind, brain, and behaviour
Levels of Analysis
-rungs on a ladder of analysis, with lower levels tied most closely to biological influences and higher levels tied most closely to social influences
-looking at the mind/behaviour from many different perspectives
Social Culture Influences (Level of Analysis)
-analysis of the social/behavioural level
-relating to others and personal relationships
-ie. how people behave differently when they are alone vs. when they are in a group
Psychological (Level of Analysis)
-analysis of the mental or neurological level
-involves thoughts, feelings, and emotions
Biological (Level of Analysis)
-analysis of the molecular or neurochemical level
-involves molecules and brain structure
-ie. looking at what regions of the brain are more active in certain situations
Multiply Determined
-one of the factors that makes psychology hard to study
-means that certain things are caused by many factors
-psychology is not a linear concept
-psychological processes have many influences and contributing factors
-ie. violence is not controlled solely by poverty or genes
Psychological Phenomena are Dependent
-one of the factors that makes psychology hard to study
-you can’t only look at one aspect as many things affect and rely on other events
Individual Differences
-one of the factors that makes psychology hard to study
-there are variations among people in thinking, emotion, personality, and behaviour
-these differences can be major or minor
-ie. when looking at results we say “on average” which means usually and not always (accounts for variation)
Influence of Others
-one of the factors that makes psychology hard to study
-it is difficult to pin down what causes what
-reciprocal determinism
Reciprocal Determinism
-the fact that we mutually influence each other’s behaviour
-makes it difficult to isolate the causes of human behaviour
-ie. if one person gets up to grab a mint, others will usually follow
Behaviour is Shaped by Culture
-one of the factors that makes psychology hard to study
-limits generalizations
-emic and etic approaches
-ie. Westerners view emotion as stemming from the individual whereas Easterners see individual emotions as being tied to the group
Emic Approach
-researches study the behaviour of a culture from the perspective of an insider/native
-makes it hard to draw generalizations
-easier to observe the full picture
Etic Approach
-researches study the behaviour of a culture from the perspective of an outsider
-makes it easy to recognize the distinct cultural identity
-compare how different people think about things
Common Sense
-our gut intuitions
We Can’t Always Trust Common Sense
-you can’t always trust what you see
-we don’t always notice contradictions until they get pointed out
Naïve Realism
-belief that we see the world precisely as it is
-people are prone to this concept
-we should usually trust our perceptions, although sometimes they can be deceiving
-ie. the sun seems to revolve around the earth but the earth is actually the one spinning
When our common sense is right…
-sometimes our intuition is correct
-ie. deciding if someone is trustworthy or untrustworthy
-helpful in generating hypothesis
-there is a chance our intuition is wrong, hence why we need to test it scientifically
Psychology as a Science
-a systemic approach to evidence
-gather and evaluate evidence
Why use a scientific approach?
-to minimize bias: anything that influences results
Empirical Evidence
-evidence gained through experience and observation
Scientific Theory
-an explanation for a large number of findings in the natural world
-ties multiple findings together into one package
-subject to change upon new evidence discovery
Hypothesis
-testable prediction derived from a scientific theory
-necessary for a theory to be scientific
Misconception #1 of Scientific Theories
-a theory explains one specific event
-doesn’t generate testable predictions
Misconception #2 of Scientific Theories
-a theory is just an educated guess
-there is evidence, even if not entirely proven
How does science safeguard bias?
-scientists have their own biases too
-good ones recognize their biases and work hard to prevent their interference
-scientific methods in psych are designed to gather evidence in a way that prevents bias
Observer Bias
-one influences the interpretation of results
-possible if they are even aware of the bias
Confirmation Bias
-the tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypothesis and deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts them
-people will focus on what they want to see
-the “mother of all biases”
-ie. once you have a hammer, everything starts looking like a nail
Belief Perseverance
-tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them
Metaphysical Claims
-assertions about the world that are not testable
-it doesn’t mean the claims are wrong
-science can’t answer everything
-ie. god
Pseudoscience
-misleading evidence
-a set of claims that seem scientific but are not
Exaggerated Claims
-a warning sign of pseudoscience
-ie. 3 simple steps will change your love life forever
Over-reliance on Anecdotes
-a warning sign of pseudoscience
-ie. this woman practices yoga daily for 3 weeks and hasn’t had a day of depression since
Ad Hoc Immunizing Hypothesis
-escape hatch or loophole that defenders of a theory use to protect their theory from falsification
-ie. the vibes are interfering with an experiment
Absence of Connectivity to Other Research
-a warning sign of pseudoscience
-ie. amazing new tech that shows eye massage results in reading 10x faster than on average
Lack of review by other scholars
-a warning sign of pseudoscience
-no replication by other labs
-no peer review
ie. 50 studies conducted by one company show success
Lack of Self-correction
-a warning sign of pseudoscience
-when contrary evidence is published
-ie. although some say… we found that…
Psychobabble
-a warning sign of pseudoscience
-using fancy scientific words that don’t actually make any sense
Talk of “proof” rather than evidence
-a warning sign of pseudoscience
-ie. our new program is proven to reduce anxiety by 50%
“This Suggests”
-a term to use instead of proof
-proof is a strong word
-this clarifies there is a possibility of error
Patternicity
-draws people to pseudoscience
-the predisposition of our brains to make order out of disorder
-finding sense in nonsense
Terrormanagement Theory
-draws people to pseudoscience
-provides comfort
-when you have fears you are more likely to accept info without evidence
Thinking Clearly
-an antidote against pseudoscience
-learn to avoid commonplace pitfalls in reasoning
-learn to avoid traps/fallicies
Logical Fallicies
-traps in thinking that can lead us to mistaken conclusions
-seem to make sense but actually don’t
Emotional Reasoning Fallacy
-a logical fallacy
-the error of using our emotions as guides for evaluating the validity of a claim
-shouldn’t assume that because a claim makes us uncomfortable that it is wrong
-ie. daycare has negative emotional effects of children makes me mad so I refuse to believe it
Bandwagon Fallacy
-a logical fallacy
-assuming a claim is correct just because many people believe it
-heavily influenced by social media
-ie. lots of people I know believe in astrology so there has to be something to it
Not Me Fallacy
-a logical fallacy
-error of believing we are immune to errors in thinking that afflict others
-often unconscious
-ie. biases don’t apply to me because I am not objective
Danger of Pseudoscience
-real risks to accepting pseudoscience
-can be dangerous, even deadly
Opportunity Cost
-a danger of pseudoscience
-what we give up
-may receive scientifically unsupported treatment
-ie. forgoing an opportunity to seek treatment
Direct Harm
-a danger of pseudoscience
-psychological or physical damage, even death sometimes
-ie. rebirthing therapy
Blocks Scientific Thinking
-a danger of pseudoscience
-scientific thinking is important for evaluating psychological claims
Scientific Skepticism
-approach of evaluating all claims with an open mind but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them as true
-a way not to get drawn into pseudoscience
-key aspect of this is critical thinking
-willing to change mind based on evidence
Critical Thinking
-set of skills for evaluating all claims in an open-minded and careful fashion
-doesn’t mean to attack all claims but instead evaluate these claims
Six Principles of Scientific Thinking
-used to evaluate claims
-critical for scientific thinking
- Ruling Out Rival Hypotheses
-a principle of scientific thinking
-are there any other explanations that could be true?
-have we ruled out other explanations?
- Correlation vs. Causation
-a principle of scientific thinking
-Correlated: when two things are associated with each other
-Causation: one thing causes the other
-just because two things are associated doesn’t mean one causes the other every time
- Falsifiability
-a principle of scientific thinking
-capable of being disproved
-disputable
Risky Prediction
forecast that stands a good chance of being wrong
- Replicability
-a principle of scientific thinking
-when a study’s findings are able to be duplicated, ideally by independent investigations
- Extraordinary Claims
-a principle of scientific thinking
-extraordinary claims need extraordinary evidence
-something too good to be true
-ie. “this cures cancer”
- Occam’s Razor
-a principle of scientific thinking
-if two explanations account equally, we should choose the simplest one
-KISS: keep it simple, stupid
-a helpful rule of thumb/guideline as opposed to a standard
Early Psychology
-early “psychologists” held positions in philosophy as there was no such thing as psychology at the time
Birth of Psychology
-1879, Wilhelm Wundt developed the first lab of psychology
-in Leipzig, Germany
Introspection
-created by Wundt to study mental processes
-a method by which trained observes carefully reflect and report on their mental experiences
Structuralism - E. B. Titchener
-aimed to identify the basic elements/structures of psychological experience
-Goal: identify the basic elements of experience
-Influence: the need to evaluate the system rather than the individual
Functionalism - William James
-aimed to understand the adaptive purposes of thoughts, feelings, behaviours
-the “why?” concept
-Influence: evolution and adaptation have shaped human thought and behaviour
-ie. responding to loud noises is learned not natural
Behaviourism - BF Skinner & John B. Watson
-uncovering the general laws of learning by looking at observable behaviour
-Influence: models of human and animal learning, need for objective research and data
Cognitivism - Jean Piaget & Ulric Neisser
-examine the role of mental processes on behaviour
-Influence: studying language, problem solving, concept formation, intelligence, memory, psychotherapy
Cognitive Psychology
thinking is central to understanding behaviour
Cognitive Neuroscience
examines relation between brain function and thinking
Psychoanalysis - Sigmund Freud
-uncover role of unconscious psychological processes and early experiences on behaviour and thought
-how we are shaped by our past
-Influence: many of our mental processes happen outside conscious awareness, pioneered psychotherapy
Psychoanalysis
-treatment based on the theory that our present is shaped by our past
Modern Psychology
-incredibly diverse
-work in academia, private practice, medicine, industry, clinical settings
Psychiatrist
-a medical doctor who specializes in mental health
-psychologists are often confused with psychiatrists
Clinical Psychologist
-assess, diagnose, treat mental disorders
-conduct research
-work in universities, mental health centres, private practice
-you don’t need a Ph.D. to become a therapist
Counselling Psychologist
-work with people experiencing temporary or self-contained life problems
-work in counselling centres, hospitals, private practice, research
-don’t work with severe mental disorders
School Psychologist
-work with teachers, parents, children
-remedy behavioural, emotional, and learning disabilities
-not academic psychologists who look at methods of teaching and evaluating learning
Developmental Psychologist
-study how and why people change over time
-conduct research on cognitive processes and how they change with age
-spend lots of time in the lab, not playing with children
Experimental Psychologist
-study memory, language, thinking, social behaviours
-work in research settings, in real world and lab
Biological Psychologist
-examine psychological behaviour in humans and animals
-work in research settings
-don’t damage animals
-examine why people do things
-ie. effects of drugs
Forensic Psychologist
-work in prisons and jails to assess inmates and assist with their rehab and treatment
-conduct research on testimonies and jury decision making
-not usually criminal profilers
-may provide expert testimonies in trials
Industrial-Organizational Psychologists
-work in companies and businesses to help with productivity, examine effects of working/conditions on behaviour
-design equipment to maximize performance
Nature-Nurture Debate
-a great debate in psychology
-are behaviours due to genes (nature) or experiences (nurture)?
Free Will vs. Determinism Debate
-to what extent are our behaviours freely selected (free will) rather than caused by factors outside our control (determinism)?
Applying Psychology in Life
-ie. sequential line ups of suspects in a crime, addition of a third brake light in the middle
