Chapter 6: Identity and Personality Flashcards
Define self-concept.
Describes the sum of all the phrases that come to mind when we think of who we are, who we used to be, and who we may become in the future
Define identity.
Describes a set of behaviors and labels we take on when in a specific group
What is a self-schema?
Self-given label that carries with it a set of qualities
Can we have multiple self-concepts or identities?
- Only one self-concept
- Multiple identities that define who we are and how we should behave within any given context
Define gender identity.
Describes a person’s appraisal of him or herself on scales of masculinity and femininity
What is androgyny?
The state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine
What is being undifferentiated?
Those who achieve low scores on both masculine and feminine scales
Define ethnic identity.
Refers to one’s ethnic group, in which members typically share a common ancestry, cultural heritage, and language
What three factors contribute to a person’s ethnic identity? How are these factors different from those that determine national identity?
- Common ancestry, cultural heritage and language
- National identity is determined by the political borders of where one lives, and the cultural identity of that nation
How are our hierarchies organized?
- Hierarchy of salience
- The situation dictates which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment
What does the self-discrepancy theory state?
Each of us has three selves
What are the three selves of the self-discrepancy theory?
1) Actual self: the way we see ourselves as we currently are
2) Ideal self: the person we would like to be
3) Ought self: our representation of the way others think we should be
How does the self-discrepancy theory relate to self-esteem?
The closer our three selves are to one another, the higher our self-esteem or self-worth will be
Define self-efficacy.
- Our belief in our ability to succeed; which can vary by activity
- Self-efficacy can be depressed past the point of recovery
What can lead us to take on tasks we are not ready for, which leads to frustration and humiliation?
Overconfidence
Define learned helplessness. It is used as a model for what?
State of hopelessness and resignation resulting from being unable to avoid repeated negative stimuli; often used as a model for depression
Define locus of control.
Refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives
Compare internal locus of control and external locus on control.
Internal: view themselves as controlling their own fate
External: feel that events in their lives are caused by luck or outside influences
According to Freud, when does the libido develop?
The libido is present at birth
According to Freud, what were the underlying dynamic forces that accounted for human psychological processes?
Libidinal energy and the drive to reduce libidinal tension
In each of Freud’s distinct stages of psychosexual development, what conflict are the children faced with?
A conflict between societal demands and the desire to reduce the libidinal tension associated with different erogenous zones of the body
How do the stages of Freud’s psychosexual development differ?
Differs in the manner in which libidinal energy is manifested and the way in which libidinal drive is met
When does fixation occur?
When a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development
What does a child do in response to the anxiety caused by fixation? What is this called?
- Child forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage, which persists into adulthood as a functional mental disorder known as neurosis
What are the five stages of Freud’s psychosexual development?
1) Oral
2) Anal
3) Phallic
4) Latency
5) Genital
How long does the oral stage last? How is gratification obtained? Where is libidinal energy centered?
- 0 to 1 year
- Gratification: putting objects into mouth, biting and sucking
- Libidinal energy: mouth
What would an orally fixated adult exhibit?
Excessive dependency
How long does the anal stage last? How is gratification obtained? Where is libidinal energy centered?
- 1 to 3 years
- Gratification: elimination and retention of waste materials
- Libidinal energy: anus
What would a fixation during the anal stage lead to?
Either excessive orderliness (anal-retentive) or sloppiness in the adult
How long does the phallic (or Oedipal) stage last? What does it center on?
- 3 to 5 years
- Resolution of the Oedipal conflict (male children) or the Electra conflict (female)
What does the Oedipal conflict state?
- Male child envies father
- Fears castration at his father’s hands
- Wishes to eliminate father and possess his mother
- Child feels guilty about his wishes
How does a male child deal with his guilty feelings during the phallic stage? (4)
1) Establishing his sexual identity
2) Identifying with his father
3) Internalizing moral values
4) Sublimates his libidinal energy
How do female children act in the Electra conflict?
- Girls are expected to exhibit less stereotypically female behavior and be less morally developed
- Penis envy
When does a child enter the latency stage? How?
During the phallic stage, once the libido is sublimated
What is the latency stage characterized by? How long does it last?
- Libido is largely sublimated during this stage
- Lasts until puberty is reached
How long does the genital stage last? If prior development has proceeded correctly, what should happen?
- Beginning in puberty and lasting through adulthood
- Person should enter healthy heterosexual relationships
What happens during the genital stage if sexual traumas of childhood have not been resolved?
Homosexuality, asexuality, fetishism
What are Erik Erikson’s stages of personality development based on?
Series of crises that derive from conflicts between needs and social demands
According to Erikson, how is a stage successfully resolved? Why is this necessary for the formation of identity?
Marked by answering an essential existential question, to imbue an individual with skills and traits
According to Erikson, the question “Can I trust the world?” corresponds to which stage (crisis)? At what age does this occur?
- Trust vs. mistrust
- 0 to 1 year
According to Erikson, the question “Is it okay to be me?” corresponds to which stage (crisis)? At what age does this occur?
- Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
- 1 to 3 years
According to Erikson, the question “Is it okay for me to do, move, and act?” corresponds to which stage (crisis)? At what age does this occur?
- Initiative vs. guilt
- 3 to 6 years
According to Erikson, the question “Can I make it in the world of people and things?” corresponds to which stage (crisis)? At what age does this occur?
- Industry vs. inferiority
- 6 to 12 years
According to Erikson, the question “Who am I? What can I be?” corresponds to which stage (crisis)? At what age does this occur?
- Identity vs. role confusion
- 12 to 20 years
According to Erikson, the question “Can I love?” corresponds to which stage (crisis)? At what age does this occur?
- Intimacy vs. isolation
- 20 to 40 years
According to Erikson, the question “Can I make my life count?” corresponds to which stage (crisis)? At what age does this occur?
- Generativity vs. stagnation
- 40 to 65 years
According to Erikson, the question “Is it okay to have been me?” corresponds to which stage (crisis)? At what age does this occur?
- Integrity vs. despair
- 65 years to death
What does Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of personality focus on?
Development of moral thinking; perceiving the notion of right and wrong
What are the three phases of Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of personality? When do they occur?
1) Preconventional morality (preadolescence)
2) Conventional morality (adolescence to adulthood)
3) Postconventional morality (adulthood - if at all)
What are the two stages of preconventional morality?
1) Obedience: avoiding punishment
2) Self-interest: gaining rewards
What does the instrumental relativist stage relate to? What concepts is it based on?
- The second stage (self-interest) of the first phase (preconventional morality) of Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory
- Reciprocity and sharing
What are the two stages of conventional morality?
3) Conformity: seeking the approval of others
4) Law and order: maintains the social order in the HIGHEST regard (If everyone stole things they couldn’t afford)
What are the two stages of postconventional morality?
5) Social contract: moral rules are contracts; designed to ensure the greater good
6) Universal human ethics: decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles
According to Lev Vygotsky, what was the engine driving cognitive development?
The child’s internalization of various aspects of the culture: rules, symbols, language
Who invented the concept of the zone of proximal development? What is it?
- Vygotsky
- Referring to those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development
Based on the zone of proximal development, how are skills developed?
Requires the help of a more knowledgeable other, typically an adult
Define the theory of mind.
The ability to sense how another’s mind works
What would Freud say if an individual had failed in completing one of his developmental stages?
The individual has become fixated in that stage, and will display the personality traits of that fixation for the rest of his life
What would Erikson say if an individual had failed in completing one of his developmental stages?
The individual would still move to subsequent phases, but will be lacking the skills and virtues granted by successful resolution of that stage
What would Kohlberg say if an individual had failed in completing one of his developmental stages?
The individual was incapable of reasoning at the level of failure, and that they would use the reasoning in previous stages to resolve moral dilemmas
Define personality.
Describes the set of thoughts, feelings, traits and behaviors which are characteristic of an individual across time and different locations
What are the four categories of the theories of personality?
- Psychoanalytic
- Humanistic
- Type and trait
- Behaviorist
What do the psychoanalytic (or psychodynamic) theories of personality have in common?
The assumption of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality
Who is the major supporter of the psychoanalytic theory of personality?
Sigmund Freud
What are the three major entities of Freud’s structural model?
Id, ego and superego
What is the id?
Consists of all basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce
What is the primary principle?
- What makes the id function
- The aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension
What is the primary process?
The id’s response to frustration (obtain satisfaction now, not later)
What is wish fulfillment?
Mental imagery, such as daydreaming or fantasy, that fulfills the need for satisfaction in the primary process
According to Freud’s structural model, why is the ego necessary?
Because the mental image (from wish fulfillment) cannot effectively reduce tension on a permanent basis
How does the ego operate? What does it guide?
According to the reality principle, taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id’s pleasure principle
What is the secondary process?
The guidance or inhibition of the id and the id’s pleasure principle
What is the aim of the reality principle?
To postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained
What receives its power from and can never be fully independent of the id?
The ego
What moderates the desires of the superego?
The ego
What is the superego?
The personality’s perfectionist, judging our actions and responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures
What are the two subsets of the superego?
Conscience: collection of the improper actions for which a child is punished
Ego-ideal: proper actions for which a child is rewarded
According to Freud’s structural model, our access to the id, ego and superego fall into three main categories. What are they?
Conscious: access
Preconscious: thoughts we aren’t currently aware of
Unconscious: thoughts that have been repressed
Differentiate repression and suppression.
Repression: unconscious forgetting (after traumatic events)
Suppression: conscious form of forgetting
According to Freud, what is an instinct? What does it influence?
- Innate psychological representation of a biological need
- Influences our behaviors
According to Freud, what are the two types of instincts?
Life (Eros): promote quest for survival (thirst, hunger, sex)
Death (Thanatos): unconscious wish for death and destruction
What is the ego’s recourse for relieving anxiety caused by the clash of the id and the superego?
Defense mechanisms
What are the two common characteristics of defence mechanisms?
1) Deny, falsify, distort reality
2) Operate unconsciously
What kind of defense mechanism is illustrated by this example: a man who survived six months in a concentration camp cannot recall anything about his life during that time period.
- Repression
- Unconsciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness
What kind of defense mechanism is illustrated by this example: a terminally ill cancer patient puts aside his anxiety to enjoy a family gathering.
- Suppression
- Consciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness
What kind of defense mechanism is illustrated by this example: a husband speaks to his wife in “baby talk” when telling her bad news.
- Regression
- Returning to an earlier stage of development
What kind of defense mechanism is illustrated by this example: two coworkers fight all the time because they are actually very attracted to each other.
- Reaction formation
- An unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite
What kind of defense mechanism is illustrated by this example: a man who has committed adultery is convinced his wife is cheating on him, despite lacking evidence.
- Projection
- Attribution of wishes, desires, thoughts, or emotions to someone else
What kind of defense mechanism is illustrated by this example: a murderer who claims that, while killing is wrong, his victim “deserved it”
- Rationalization
- Justification of attitudes, beliefs or behaviors
What kind of defense mechanism is illustrated by this example: when sent to his room as a punishment, a child begins to punch and kick his pillow.
- Displacement
- Changing the target of an emotion, while the feelings remain the same
What kind of defense mechanism is illustrated by this example: a boss who is attracted to his employee becomes her mentor and advisor.
- Sublimation
- Channelling of an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction
What defense mechanism does the Rorschah inkblot test rely on?
Projection (projecting unconscious feelings onto the shape)
Who assumed a collective unconscious that links all humans together and viewed the personality as being influenced by archetypes? What kind of theorist was he?
- Carl Jung
- Psychoanalytic
Differentiate Jung’s personal unconscious and collective unconscious.
Personal: similar to Freud’s notion of the unconscious
Collective: powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors
What is a Jungian archetype? What is it apart of?
Thought or image that has an emotional element and is part of the collective unconsciouness
Name the 4 important Jungian archetypes.
- Persona
- Anima
- Animus
- Shadow
Which Jungian archetype is the aspect of our personality we present to the world?
Persona
Which Jungian archetype is a “man’s inner woman”?
Anima
Which Jungian archetype is a “woman”s inner man”?
Animus
Which Jungian archetype are unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness?
Shadow
According to Jung, what was the point of intersection between the collective unconscious, the personal unconscious, and the conscious mind?
The self
How did Jung symbolize the self?
As a mandala
Name Jung’s three dichotomies of personality.
- Extraversion (E) vs. Intraversion (I)
- Sensing (S) vs. Intuiting - working with information abstractly (N)
- Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F)
Who laid the groundwork for the creation of the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI)? Which fourth dichotomy was added?
- Carl Jung
- Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P)
Other psychoanalysts such as Adler and Horney have distanced themselves from Freud’s theories, claiming that the unconscious is motivated by what rather than sexual urges?
Social
Who is the originator of the inferiority complex?
Alfred Adler
What is the inferiority complex? How does it drive the personality?
- Individual’s sense of incompleteness, imperfection and inferiority both physically and socially
- Striving for superiority drives the personality (benefit society vs. selfishness)
What is the creative self?
The force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes his personality
What is the style of life?
The manifestation of the creative self and describes a person’s unique way of achieving superiority
What is fictional finalism?
The notion that an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences: “Life would be perfect if only”
What is the difference between Freud, Jung, and Adler in terms of motivation for human behavior?
Freud: motivated by inborn instincts
Jung: governed by inborn archetypes
Adler: motivated by striving for superiority
What is Karen Horney’s view on personality? What perspective is this?
- The result of interpersonal relationships
- Psychoanalytic perspective
Give examples of neurotic needs. Who is behind these needs?
- Karen Horney
- Directed toward making life and interactions bearable
- Need for affection and approval, need to exploit others, need for self-sufficiency and independence
According to Karen Horney, what leads to basic anxiety? What leads to basic hostility? What do they cause?
Basic anxiety: inadequate parenting (vulnerability, helplessness)
Basic hostility: neglect and rejection (anger)
What are the three ways a child can overcome basic anxiety and hostility?
1) Moving toward people to obtain the goodwill of people who provide security
2) Moving against people to obtain the upper hand
3) Moving away from people
What is the object relations theory? What perspective is this?
- Psychoanalytic perspective
- Object refers to the representation of parents or other caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy
- Objects can persist into adulthood and impact our interactions with others
Compare psychoanalysts and humanistic theorists.
Psychoanalysts: focus on “sick” individuals and their troubling urges
Humanistic: focus on the value of individuals and take a more person-centered approach; healthy people strive toward self-realization
Humanism is often associated with Gestalt therapy. What is this?
Practitioners tend to take a holistic view of the self, seeing each individual as a complete person rather than reducing him to individual behaviors or drives
For humanists, personality is the result of what?
Conscious feelings we have for ourselves as we attempt to attain our needs and goals
What is the force field theory? Who is behind it? Which perspective is it?
- Kurt Lewin
- Humanistic
- Field is the current state of mind, which is the sum of the forces (influences) on the individual at that time
- Forces can aid self-realization, or can block
What kind of perspective did Abraham Maslow follow?
Humanistic perspective
According to Maslow, what is the major difference between self-actualized people and non-self-actualized people?
Self-actualized people have lived through peak experiences: profound and deeply moving experiences in a person’s life which have important and lasting effects on the individual
Who is behind personal construct psychology? What perspective did he follow?
- George Kelly
- Humanistic perspective
What did George Kelly theorize about human nature?
Individual is a scientist who devises and tests predictions about the behavior of significant people in their life
Who is behind client-centered/person-centered/nondirective therapy? What perspective did he follow?
- Carl Rogers
- Humanistic
What did Carl Rogers theorize in client-centered therapy?
- Does not provide solutions or diagnoses
- Helps the client reflect, make choices, generate solutions, take positive action, and determine his OWN destiny
How does Carl Rogers beliefs differ from psychoanalysts and behaviorists?
- Psychoanalysts: not slaves to the unconscious
- Behaviorists: not subjects of faulty learning
Who pioneered the unconditional positive regard technique?
Carl Rogers
What is the unconditional positive regard technique?
The therapist accepts the client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment
Differentiate type and trait personality perspectives.
Type: attempt to create a taxonomy of personality types
Trait: describe individual personality as the sum of a person’s characteristic behaviors
The Ancient Greeks devised personality types based on humors or bodily fluids. What are the four humors? What kind of theory is this?
- Yellow bile
- Black bile
- Phlegm
- Blood
- Type theory
William Sheldon proposed personality types based on body types (somatotypes). What kind of theory is this?
Type theory
Differentiate type A and type B personality types.
Type A: competitive and compulsive
Type B: laid-back and relaxed
The Eysencks identified three major traits which could be used to describe all individuals. What kind of theory is this? What are the three personality types? What is the acronym?
- Trait theory
- PEN Model
- Psychoticism (non-conformity)
- Extraversion (tolerance for social interaction and stimulation)
- Neuroticism (arousal in stressful situations)
The PEN theory has been expanded to what is known as the Big Five. What is the acronym? What are the five traits?
OCEAN
- Openness
- Conscientiousness
- Extraversion
- Agreeableness
- Neuroticism
What kind of theorist is Gordon Allport? What are the three basic traits he listed?
- Trait theorist
- Cardinal, central, and secondary
What is a cardinal trait?
Traits around which a person organizes her life (ex: Mother Teresa’s cardinal trait is self-sacrifice
Does everyone possess cardinal traits? What about central and secondary?
- Not everyone possesses cardinal traits
- Everyone has central and secondary traits
What are central traits?
Major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, such as honesty or charisma
What are secondary traits?
Other personality characteristics that are more limited in occurrence; only appear in close groups or specific social situations
What is the theory of functional autonomy? Who is behind it?
- Gordon Allport
- Behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior
David McClelland identified a personality trait that is referred to as the need for achievement. What is it?
- Avoid high and low risks
- Concerned with achievements and have pride in accomplishments
- Set realistic goals; stop striving toward a goal if success is unlikely
What is the behaviorist perspective of personality? Who pioneered it?
- B.F. Skinner
- Personality is a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced with time (operant conditioning)
What is the social cognitive perspective of personality?
Focuses on how our environment influences our behavior, and also how we interact with our environment (behaviorism one step further)
What concept is central to the social cognitive perspective of personality? Who pioneered that concept?
- Albert Bandura
- Reciprocal determinism: idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation
For a social cognitive theorist, what is the best predictor of future behavior?
Past behavior in similar situations
What does the biological perspective of personality state?
Personality can be explained as a result of genetic expression in the brain
