Chapter 1: Biology and Behaviour Flashcards
What is phrenology? Who developed it? Was it true or false?
- The basic idea that if a particular trait was well-developed, then the part of the brain responsible for that trait would expand.
- Franz Gall
- Shown to be false
What is ablation? What happens during ablation? It is used to study what? Was it tested on humans?
- Extirpation on rabbits and pigeons to study the functions of the major sections of the brain
- Various parts of the brain are surgically removed and the behavioural consequences are observed?
What were the major contributions of Franz Gall?
Phrenology; associated development of a trait with growth of its relevant part of the brain
What were the major contributions of Pierre Flourens?
Extirpation/ablation; concluded that different brain regions have specific functions
What were the major contributions of William James?
Pushed for importance of studying adaptations of the individual to his or her environment
What were the major contributions of John Dewey?
Credited with the landmark article on functionalism; argued for studying the entire organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to the environment
What were the major contributions of Paul Broca?
Correlated pathology with specific brain regions, such as speech production from Broca’s area
What were the major contributions of Hermann von Helmoltz?
Measured speed of a nerve impulse
What were the major contributions of Sir Charles Sherrington?
Inferred the existence of synapses
Who is the father of American psychology?
William James
What is functionalism? Who helped form this system of thought? Who is another important name whose article is seen as the inception of functionalism?
- System of thought in psychology that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment
- William James
- John Dewey
Who is credited with the transition of psychology into a field of the natural sciences?
Hermann von Helmholtz
Sir Charles Sherrington inferred the existence of synapses. Did he think it was an electrical or chemical process? What is it really?
- He thought it was an electrical process
- We now know that it is primarily a chemical process
What are the three kinds of nerve cells in the nervous system?
- Sensory neurons
- Motor neurons
- Interneurons
Sensory neurons transmit information from where to where? What are they also known as?
- Afferent neurons
- Transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain
Motor neurons transmit information from where to where? What are they also known as?
- Efferent neurons
- Transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands
Where are interneurons found? What behaviour are they linked to?
- Found between other neurons
- Located predominantly in the brain and spinal cord
- Linked to reflexive behaviour
Which type of nerve cell is the most abundant?
Interneurons
What controls reflexive behaviour?
- Neural circuits called reflex arcs
What are the two components of the nervous system?
- Central nervous system (CNS)
- Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
What is the CNS composed of?
Brain and spinal cord
What is the PNS composed of?
Nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cords
How many pairs of cranial nerves are there? How many pairs of spinal nerves?
- Cranial: 12 pairs
- Spinal: 31 pairs
What are the two components of the PNS?
- Somatic nervous system
- Autonomic nervous system
What does the somatic nervous system consist of? Is it voluntary or involuntary control?
- Sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints, and muscles
- Voluntary control of body movements through afferent and efferent nerves
_fferent neurons ________ in the cord towards the brain; _fferent neurons ______ the cord on the way to the rest of the body.
- Afferent, ascend
- Efferent, exit
What does the autonomic nervous system manage? Are these functions dependant of conscious control?
- Manages the involuntary muscles associated with many internal organs and glands
- INDEPENDANT of conscious control (automatic)
Name 4 examples of functions that the autonomic nervous system controls.
Heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and temperature control
What are the two components of the ANS? How are they in relation to one another?
- Sympathetic
- Parasympathetic
- Antagonistic; act in opposition of one another
What is the main role of the parasympathetic nervous system? Does it constrict or relax bronchi? Does it constrict or dilate pupils?
Conserve energy
- Constricts bronchi
- Constricts pupils
Which nervous system is associated with “fight-or-flight”? Which is associated with “rest-and-digest”?
Fight-or-flight: sympathetic
Rest-and-digest: parasympathetic
What is the neurotransmitter associated with parasympathetic responses in the body?
Acetylcholine
What is the sympathetic nervous system activated by?
Stress
What is increased in the bloodstream with the sympathetic nervous system? Where is blood redistributed?
- Increases blood glucose concentration
- Releases epinephrine in the bloodstream
- Redistributes blood to muscles of locomotion
What are the three meninges that help protect the brain, keep it anchored within the skull and resorb cerebrospinal fluid?
- Dura mater
- Arachnoid mater
- Pia mater
What is cerebrospinal fluid?
The aqueous solution in which the brain and spinal cord rest
The human brain can be divided into three basic subdivisions? What are they?
- Hindbrain
- Midbrain
- Forebrain
Which subdivisions of the brain were developed earlier? Why?
- Hindbrain and midbrain
- Brain structures associated with basic survival skills
What is the brain-stem composed of?
Hindbrain and midbrain
What developed following the brain-stem? (2)
Forebrain and limbic system
What is related to the limbic system?
Emotion and memory
What is the most recent evolutionary development of the human brain? What is its structure? What are its functions?
- Cerebral cortex
- The outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres
- Language processing to problem-solving, and impulse control to long-term planning
The inferior and superior colliculi are structures of which division? What are its functions?
- Midbrain
- Sensorimotor reflexes
The cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and reticular formation are structures of which division?
Hindbrain
The cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, thalamus, and hypothalamus are structures of which division?
Forebrain
Which structure is responsible for arousal and alertness?
Reticular formation
Which structure is responsible for refined motor movements (posture, balance, coordinates body movements)?
Cerebellum
Which structure is responsible for vital functioning (breathing, digestion)?
Medulla oblongata
Which structure is responsible for emotion and memory?
Limbic system
Which structure is responsible for the sensory relay station?
Thalamus
Which structure is responsible for hunger and thirst; as well as emotion?
Hypothalamus
Which structure is responsible for movement?
Basal ganglia
Which structure is responsible for complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioural processes?
Cerebral cortex
In the embryonic brain, which major divisions divide into two other swellings? How many total swellings are there?
- Forebrain and hindbrain divide in two swellings
- 5 swellings total
Where is the hindbrain located? What is its major role?
- Where the brain meets the spinal cord
- Manages vital functioning necessary for survival
What is the hindbrain also called? During embryonic development, it divides into two swellings. What are they called?
- Rhombencephalon
- Metencephalon
- Myelencephalon
What do the myelencephalon and metencephalon become?
Myelencephalon: medulla oblongata
Metencephalon: pons and cerebellum
Where do the pons lies?
Lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and medulla
Where is the cerebellum located?
At the top of the hindbrain, mushrooming out of the back of the pons
Where is the midbrain located? What is its major role? What is it also called?
- Just above the midbrain
- Receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body
- Mesencephalon
Where is the forebrain located? What is its major role?
- Above the midbrain
- Associated with complex perceptual, cognitive and behavioural processes; emotion and memory (not necessary for survival, but influences human behaviour greatly)
What is the forebrain also called? During embryonic development, it divides into two swellings. What are they called?
- Prosencephalon
- Telencephalon and diencephalon
What do the telencephalon and diencephalon become?
Telencephalon: cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system
Diencephalon: thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, pineal gland
What is neuropsychology?
The study of functions and behaviours associated with specific regions of the brain
Name 3 methods for studying the relationship of brain regions and behaviours.
- Study brain lesions in lab animals (extirpation, electrodes)
- Electrically stimulating and recording brain activity; creates cortical maps
What is EEG? Is it invasive?
- Electroencephalogram
- Placing electrodes on the scalp; broad patterns of electrical activity can be detected and recorded
- Noninvasive
What is another noninvasive mapping procedure?
Regional cerebral blood flow, which detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain
What division of the brain forms the largest portion by weight and volume?
Forebrain
What are the functions of the thalamus? Which sense doesn’t it include?
- Serves as an important relay station for incoming sensory information, including all senses EXCEPT for smell
- Sorts and transmits them to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex
What are the four functions of the hypothalamus? (4Fs)
- Feeding
- Fighting
- Flighting
- (Sexual) Functioning
What is the function of the lateral hypothalamus?
- Triggers eating and drinking
- When the LH is destroyed, one Lacks Hunger
- Brain legions to this area lead to starvation
What is the function of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)?
- Satiety center
- Provides signals to stop eating
- Brain legions to this area lead to obesity
- When the VMH is destroyed, one is Very Much Hungry
What is the function of the anterior hypothalamus?
- Controls sexual behaviour (also sleep and body temperature)
- Brain legions lead to permanent inhibition of sexual activity
- When the AH is destroyed, one is Asexual
What is the site of release for the hypothalamic hormones? What are the two hypothalamic hormones released by the posterior pituitary?
- Posterior pituitary
- ADH and oxytocin
What is the function of the pineal gland? Which important rhythm does it regulate?
- Key player in several biological rhythms
- Secretes a hormone called melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythm
What is the main function of the basal ganglia? Where is it located? Which disease is it associated with?
- Coordinates muscle movements as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information
- In the middle of the brain
- Parkinson’s disease
How does the basal ganglia relay information from the cortex to the brain and spinal cord?
- Extrapyramidal motor system, which gathers information about body position and carries this information to the CNS
What are the primary components of the limbic system?
Septal nuclei, amygdala, and hippocampus
What is the function of the septal nuclei?
One of the primary pleasure centers in the brain
What is the function of the amygdala?
Plays and important role in defensive and aggressive behaviours, including fear and rage
What is the function of the hippocampus?
Plays a vital role in learning and memory processes; helps consolidate information to form long-term memories
What is anterograde amnesia?
Not being able to establish new-long term memories, whereas memory for events that occurred before the brain injury is usually intact
What is retrograde amnesia?
Memory loss of events that transpired before brain injury
What is the outer surface of the brain called? What is that structure sometimes called?
- Cerebral cortex
- Neocortex
What are the bumps of the cerebral cortex called? And the folds?
Bumps: gyri
Folds: sulci
The cerebrum is divided into how many subdivisions? What are they called?
- 2
- Cerebral hemispheres
The surface of the cortex is divided into how many lobes? What are they called?
- 4
- Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal (F-POT)
What two components make up the frontal lobe?
Prefrontal cortex and the motor cortex
What is the function of the prefrontal cortex?
- Manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions
- Supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning
What regulates attention and alertness? How?
- Prefrontal cortex
- Communicates with the reticular formation in the brainstem
- Dictates either to wake up or relax
What is an association area? Give an example.
- Area that integrates input from diverse brain regions
- Prefrontal cortex
What is a projection area? Give an example.
- Perform more rudimentary or simple perceptual and motor tasks
- Primary motor cortex
Where is the primary motor cortex located? What is its role?
- On the precentral gyrus (in front of the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes)
- Initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles
What is the function of the Broca’s area? Where is it found?
- Vitally important for speech production
- Usually found in only in the dominant hemisphere
What is the dominant hemisphere for most people?
Left hemisphere
Where is the parietal lobe located?
To the rear of the frontal lobe
Where is the somatosensory cortex located? What is its function?
- On the postcentral gyrus (just behind the central sulcus)
- Involved in somatosensory information processing (incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain)
What are the subunits that make up the sensorimotor cortex?
Somatosensory cortex and motor cortex, which are closely related and sometimes described as a single unit
Which region makes it possible to orient oneself and other objects in 3D space, to do spatial manipulation of objects, and to apply spatial orientation skills for map-reading?
Central region of the parietal lobe
Where are the occipital lobes? What do they contain? What is this also referred as?
- At the very rear of the brain
- Visual cortex
- Striate cortex
Where are the auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area located?
Temporal lobe
What is the function of the Wernicke’s area?
Associated with language reception and comprehension
What are other functions of the temporal lobe?
Memory processing, emotion and language
What term defines when one side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body? What term defines when one side of the brain communicates with the same side of the body?
Opposite: contralateral communication
Same: ipsilateral communication
How is the dominant hemisphere defined?
The one that is more heavily stimulated during language reception and production
Do dominant hands dictate dominant brain hemispheres?
NO, they were thought to in the past
What is located primarily in the dominant hemisphere? Which one is it usually?
- Usually left
- Language, logic, math
- Broca’s area (language production) and Wernicke’s area (language comprehension)
What is located primarily in the nondominant hemisphere?
- Usually right
- Intuition, creativity, music cognition, spatial processing, faces, spatial processes
- Interprets language according to its emotional tone
Which neurotransmitter is associated with voluntary muscle control, parasympathetic nervous system, attention and alertness?
Acetylcholine
Which neurotransmitter is associated with fight-or-flight responses, wakefulness, and alertness?
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
Which neurotransmitter is associated with smooth movements, postural stability?
Dopamine
Which neurotransmitter is associated with mood, sleep, eating, dreaming?
Serotonin
Which neurotransmitter is associated with brain “stabilization”? How?
- GABA
- By causing hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane
Which neurotransmitter is known as the natural painkiller?
Endorphins
How is acetylcholine found in the PNS and CNS?
PNS: transmit nerve impulses to the muscles
CNS: attention and arousal
What are the three neurotransmitters that make up the catecholamines? How are they also classified? What important role do they all play?
- Epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine
- Monoamines, or biogenic amines
- All play important roles in the experience of emotions
Where are high levels of dopamine found in the brain?
In the basal ganglia, which help smooth movements and maintain postural stability
Imbalances in which neurotransmitter are linked to schizophrenia?
Dopamine (either too much, or an oversensitivity)
What is Parkinson’s disease associated with?
Loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia
Apart from the catecholamines, which other neurotransmitter is a monoamine?
Serotonin
What is the most important neuropeptide/neuromodulator?
Endorphins
What links the endocrine and nervous systems?
Hypothalamus
What are the two regions of the pituitary gland? Which one is the “master”? Why? What is it controlled by?
- Anterior and posterior
- Anterior pituitary
- Because it releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands
- Controlled by the hypothalamus
Where are the adrenal glands located? How are they divided?
- On top of the kidneys
- Adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex
What does the adrenal medulla release?
Epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of the sympathetic nervous system
What does the adrenal cortex produce?
- Hormones called corticosteroids, included cortisol
- Also contributes to sexual functioning by producing testosterone and estrogen
Which glands produce sex hormones in higher concentrations?
Gonads: ovaries in females and testes in males
Define innate behaviours.
Genetically programmed as a result of evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience
Define learned behaviours.
Are not based on heredity but instead on experience and environment
What is adaptive value? What does it lead to? How?
The extent to which a trait or behaviour positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species, thus leading to adaptation through natural selection
Define nature and nurture.
Nature: heredity, or the influence of inherited characteristics on behaviour
Nurture: influence of environment and physical surroundings on behaviours
What are the three methods that are used to determine the degree of genetic influence on individual differences between people?
- Family studies
- Twin studies
- Adoption studies
What are family studies? Why is it limited?
- Compare rates of a given trait among family members to those among unrelated individuals
- Limited since family studies cannot distinguish between shared environmental factors and genetic factors
What do twin studies compare?
Concordance rates between monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins
What do adoption studies compare?
Similarities between adopted children and their adopted parents, relative to similarities with their biological parents
When does neurulation occurs? How? What does it form?
- At 3 to 4 weeks of gestation
- The ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow
- Forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds
What are the cells at the leading edge of the neural fold called? What will they do?
- Neural crest, which will migrate throughout the body to form disparate tissues
The remainder of the furrow closes to form what? Which will ultimately form what?
- Neural tube
- Central nervous system
What are the two plates of the neural tube? What do they differentiate into?
- Alar plate, differentiates into sensory neurons
- Basal plate, differentiates into motor neurons
What are primitive reflexes?
Reflexes in infants that disappear with age
What is the rooting reflex?
Infants react automatically by turning their head in the direction of a stimulus that touches their cheek (nipple during feeding)
What is the Moro reflex? When should it disappear? When is it abnormal to still have it? What can asymmetry hint towards?
- Infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting their arms and crying
- Should disappear after four months
- One year is a strong suggestion of developmental difficulties
- Asymmetry = underlying neuromuscular problems
What is the Babinski reflex?
Infants react automatically when the sole of their foot is stimulated; big toe extends while the other toes fan outwards
What is the grasping reflex?
Occurs when the infant closes his or her fingers around an object placed in his or her hand
What are gross motor skills? Give examples.
- Incorporate movements from large muscle groups and whole body motion
- Sitting, crawling, walking
What are fine motor skills? Give examples.
- Involve the smaller muscles of the fingers, toes and eyes
- Drawing, catching, waving
When does stranger anxiety and separation anxiety develop?
Stranger anxiety: 7 months
Separation anxiety: 1 year
What is parallel play? When does it develop?
- Children will play alongside each other without influencing each other’s behaviour
- 2 years old
