Chapter 5: Motivation, Emotion, and Stress Flashcards
Differentiate extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic: external forces, coming from outside oneself, create motivation (rewards, avoiding punishment)
Intrinsic: motivation that comes from within oneself (driven by interest, enjoyment)
Define instincts.
Innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli. It may be consistent throughout life, or it may appear and disappear with time
What does the instinct theory state?
People are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionarily programmed instincts
What did William James describe in line with the instinct theory?
Humans are driven by:
- Physical instincts (suckling, locomotion)
- Mental instincts (curiosity, fearfulness)
Many instincts are in conflict with one another, and can be overridden by experience
Who was the greatest contributor to the instinct theory? How many distinctive instincts did he think humans had?
- William McDougall
- 18 instincts
Define arousal.
The psychological and physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimuli
What does arousal involve physiologically?
Brainstem, automatic nervous system, endocrine system
What does the arousal theory state?
People perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal (arousal “homeostasis”)
What does the Yerkes-Dodson law state?
Performance is worst at extremely low and high levels of arousal, and optimal in the middle
Which arousal levels are optimal for highly cognitive tasks? Which arousal levels are optimal for activities that require physical endurance and stamina?
Cognitive: lower levels of arousal
Physical: higher levels of arousal
Define drives. How do they originate?
- Internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals
- Originate within an individual without requiring external factors to motivate the behavior
What are primary drives? Give examples.
- Drives that motivate us to sustain bodily processes in homeostasis
- Food, water, warmth
How is homeostasis controlled?
Negative feedback loops
What are secondary drives? Give examples.
- Drives that stem from learning that motivate us to fulfill nonbiological (usually emotional) desires
- Nurturing, love, achievement, aggression
What does the drive reduction theory state?
Motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states
Maslow’s pyramid is an example of what kind of motivation theory?
Maslow’s Hierarchy of NEEDS
If the lowest level is not met, there will be no motivation to accomplish the next level
Name the 4 primary factors that influence motivation.
- Instincts
- Arousal
- Drives
- Needs
What does the self-determination theory state? What kind of motivation theory is it?
- Need-based theory
- Emphasizes the role of three universal needs to develop healthy relationships: autonomy, competence, and relatedness
What does incentive theory state?
Behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but by the desire to pursue rewards and to avoid punishment
What does the expectancy-value theory state?
The amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual’s expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which she values succeeding at the goal
What does the opponent-process theory state? What does it explain?
- Explains continuous drug use AND tolerance
- When a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology
- Can create withdrawal effects that will increase dependence
Which hormones contribute to sexual motivation?
Estrogens, progesterone and androgens
What contributes to sexual motivation?
- Hormones
- Smell
- Pleasure and interpretation of pleasure
- Cognition
- Culture and society
List Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in decreasing priority.
- Physiological needs
- Safety and security
- Love and belonging
- Self-esteem
- Self-actualization
According to the opponent-process theory, what clinical features would be expected with withdrawal from cocaine use?
Cocaine: euphoria, restlessness, increased heart rate and temperature, anxiety
Withdrawal: depressed mood, fatigue, decreased heart rate and temperature, apathy
Define emotion.
A natural instinctive state of mind derived from one’s circumstances, mood, or relationships with others
Name the three elements of emotion.
- Physiological response
- Behavioral response
- Cognitive response
What is arousal stimulated by?
The sympathetic nervous system
What is the physiological response to emotion?
Changes in heart rate, breathing rate, skin temperature, and blood pressure
What is the behavioral response to emotion?
Facial expressions and body language
What is the cognitive response to emotion? What is it caused by?
The subjective interpretation of the feeling being experienced; largely based on memories of past experiences and perception of the cause of the emotion
Who argued that emotions are universal? Why?
- Darwin
- He stated that they are a result of evolution
Paul Ekman described 7 basic emotions that are recognized around the world. What are they?
- Happiness
- Sadness
- Contempt
- Surprise
- Fear
- Disgust
- Anger
How did Darwin integrate emotions into his theory of evolution?
Evolutionary adaptations due to situations encountered over the evolutionary history of the human species that guide sensory processing, physiological response, and behavior
In the James-Lange theory of emotions, what are the first and second responses to the stimulus?
1) Nervous system arousal (physiological)
2) Conscious emotion
* Physiological arousal is what leads to the emotion. So, he stated that people with spinal cord injuries should feel less emotions, which has been proved to be false
In the Cannon-Bard theory of emotions, what are the first and second responses to the stimulus?
1) Nervous system arousal and conscious emotion
2) Action
* Cognitive and physiological components of emotion occur simultaneously
In the Schachter-Singer theory of emotions, what are the first and second responses to the stimulus?
1) Nervous system arousal and cognitive appraisal
2) Conscious emotion
Both arousal and labeling based on environment required to feel an emotion
What is the Schachter-Singer theory also called?
- Cognitive arousal theory
- Two-factor theory
What is cognitive appraisal?
To feel an emotion, one must consciously analyze the environment in relation to nervous system arousal
What is the most notable part of the brain that is responsible for emotions and motivation?
The limbic system
What does the James-Lange theory require?
Requires connection between sympathetic nervous system and the brain
What does the Cannon-Bard theory not explain?
Does not explain vagus nerve
An individual sees a snake, feels scared and runs. What went on in his brain?
Thalamus processes sensory information, sends it to the cortex and sympathetic nervous system
What is the function of the amygdala?
- Involved with attention and emotion (especially fear)
- Helps interpret facial expressions
- Part of the intrinsic memory system for emotional memory
What is the function of the thalamus?
- Sensory processing station; routes information to the cortex and other areas
What is the function of the hypothalamus?
- Releases neurotransmitters that affect mood and arousal
- Serves a homeostatic function
- Modulating emotion, dictates emotional states
What is the function of the hippocampus?
- Creates long-term explicit memories (episodic memories)
What is the function of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex?
- Involved in decision-making and controlling emotional responses from the amygdala
Who does the amygdala signal?
The cortex about stimuli related to attention and emotions
Where is the hippocampus located?
Temporal lobe
What controls the explicit memory system? What controls the implicit memory system?
Explicit: hippocampus (medial temporal lobe)
Implicit: amygdala
What is explicit memory?
The memory of experiencing the actual emotion
What is implicit memory? What is it also referred to?
- Storage of the actual feelings of emotion associated with an event; when experiencing a similar event, emotions may be retried
- Emotional memory
The ability to distinguish and interpret others’ facial expressions is primarily controlled by what?
Temporal lobe, with some input from the occipital lobe
What area of the brain is associated with planning intricate cognitive functions, expressing personality, and making decisions?
Prefrontal cortex
Where does the prefrontal cortex receive arousal input from?
Brainstem
Which side of the prefrontal cortex is associated with positive emotions? Which side is associated with negative emotions?
Left: positive
Right: negative
What is the dorsal prefrontal cortex associated with?
Attention and cognition
What does the ventral prefrontal cortex do?
- Connects with regions of the brain responsible for experiencing emotion
- Decision-making
- Controlling emotional responses from the amygdala
Which nervous system is related to emotion?
Automatic nervous system
Define cognitive appraisal.
The subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress
What is the first stage or cognitive appraisal? How can the stress be identified?
- Primary appraisal (Stage 1)
- Initial evaluation of the environment and the associated threat
- Identified as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful
What happens if the primary appraisal reveals a threat?
Stage 2 appraisal begins
What is the second stage of cognitive appraisal? What kind of individual experiences less stress?
- Secondary appraisal (Stage 2)
- Evaluating whether the organism can cope with the stress
- Those who perceive themselves as having the ability to cope with the event have less stress
What are the three times the secondary appraisal evaluates?
1) Harm, or damaged caused by the event
2) Threat, or the potential for future damage caused by the event
3) Challenge, or the potential to overcome and possibly benefit from the event
When does distress occur?
When experiencing unpleasant stressors
When does eustress occur?
A result of positive conditions (graduating from college)
How can stress level be measured? According to what system?
- In life change units
- Social readjustment rating scale
Name factors that influence stress.
- Pressure
- Control
- Predictability
- Frustration
- Conflict
What is approach-approach conflict?
Choosing between two desirable options
What is avoidance-avoidance conflict?
Choosing between two negative options
What is approach-avoidance conflict?
Dealing with only one choice, goal, or event, but the outcome could have both positive and negative elements (ex: job promotion)
What physiological changes are observed in the first stage of the general adaptation syndrome? What is the stage name?
- Alarm (Stage 1)
- Activation of sympathetic nervous system, release of ACTH and cortisol, stimulation of adrenal medulla to secrete epinephrine
What physiological changes are observed in the second stage of the general adaptation syndrome? What is the stage name?
- Resistance (Stage 2)
- Continuous release of hormones activates sympathetic nervous system
What physiological changes are observed in the third stage of the general adaptation syndrome? What is the stage name?
- Exhaustion (Stage 3)
- Can no longer maintain elevated sympathetic nervous system activity, more susceptible to illness and medical conditions, organ systems deteriorate, death
When subjected to stress, the body goes through physiological responses based on the general adaptation syndrome. What are the three stages?
1) Alarm
2) Resistance
3) Exhaustion
Which hormone maintains the steady supply of blood sugar needed to respond to stressful events?
Cortisol
What are the two types of strategies for coping with stress?
- Problem-focused strategies
- Emotionally-focused strategies
Working to overcome a stressor (reaching out to family and friends for social support, confronting the issue, and creating a plan) is what kind of strategy for coping with stress?
Problem-focused strategy
Changing one’s feelings about a stressor (taking responsibility, engaging in self-control, distancing oneself) is what kind of strategy for coping with stress?
Emotionally-focused strategies
If an individual reaches out to loved ones for support in stressful times, what kind of coping strategy is that?
Adaptive
If an individual turns to drugs and alcohol in stressful times, what kind of coping strategy is that?
Maladaptive
