Chapter 6: Identity and Personality Flashcards
Our awareness of ourselves as distinct from others and the answers to “Who am I?” form our _____- ___________.
self-concept
Social scientists define ____________ as the individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong.
identity
____________ identity describes people’s appraisals of themselves on scales of masculinity and femininity.
gender
________________ is defined as the state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine.
Androgyny
Those who achieve low scores on both scales of femininity and masculinity are referred to as ________________.
Undifferentiated
____________ identity refers to the part of one’s identity associated with membership in a particular racial/ethnic group.
Ethnic
While ethnicity is largely an identity into which we are born, ________________ is based on political borders.
nationality
shared history, media, cuisine, and national symbols, e.g. flag
It is believed that our identities are organized to a hierarchy of ________________, such that we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment.
salience
depends on amount of work invested, rewards/gratification, self-esteem
______-__________________ theory maintains that each of us has 3 selves and that perceived differences between these selves lead to negative feelings.
Self-discrepancy
What are the 3 selves that make up our self-concept?
- actual self: how we currently see ourselves
- ideal self: the person we’d like to be
- ought self: our representation of how others think we should be
The closer the 3 selves are, the higher our ______-__________ would be.
self-esteem
______-__________ is our belief in our ability to succeed.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy can be depressed; an individual can develop a perceived lack of control over the outcome of a situation, a phenomenon called ____________ __________________.
learned helplessness
________ of ____________ refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives. People with a high internal level of this will view themselves as controlling their own fates, whereas those with a high external level of this will view events in their lives as being up to chance.
locus of control
What are Sigmund Freud’s 5 stages of psychosexual development?
- oral
- anal
- phallic
- latency
- genital
________________ occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a psychosexual stage of development.
Fixation
In reponse to anxiety caused by fixation, a child may form a personality pattern based on that stage, which persists into adulthood as a mental disorder known as ________________.
neurosis
The first psychosexual stage is the ________ stage, spanning from 0 to 1 year of age.
Gratification is obtained by putting things in the mouth.
Fixation can lead to what?
oral
excessive dependency
The second psychosexual stage is the ________ stage, from ages 1 to 3, where the libido is centered on the anus and gratification is gained through eliminating waste.
Fixation can lead to what?
anal
excessive orderliness or sloppiness
The third psychosexual stage is the ____________ stage, from ages 3 to 5. It is known as the Oedipal stage, where the child resolves the Oedipal/Electra conflict. The child will sublimiate, or de-eroticize their libidinal energy.
Electra conflict for females, oedipal for males
phallic
The fourth psychosexual stage is the ________________ stage, which occurs after libido is sublimated and lasts until puberty.
latency
The 5th and final psychosexual stage is the ________________ stage, which begins at puberty and goes till adulthood. If previous stages have been resolved, then the person will enter into a heterosexual relationship.
genital
Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development theorizes that personality development is drivem by what?
The successful resolution of a series of social and emotional conflicts
What are the 8 stages of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development?
Trust Autonomy to Initiate the Industry, Identify Intimacy, and Generate Integrity
- trust vs. mistrust
- autonomy vs. shame and doubt
- initiative vs. guilt
- industry vs. inferiority
- identity vs. role confusion
- intimacy vs. isolation
- generativity vs. stagnation
- integrity vs. despair
Erikson’s first conflict is _________ vs. _________, which occurs during the first year of life. Newborns must decide whether or not to trust caregivers to provide support.
trust vs. mistrust
If caregivers reliably care, the newborn will learn trust.
Psychosocial development means not only resolving each conflict, but also ?
obtaining a positive resolution
but you can still advance to later stages and learn it later
Erikson’s 2nd conflict is ____________ vs. ____________, from ages 1 to 3, where children begin to explore their surroundings and develop their interests. What is the favorable outcome?
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
kids can feel like they can exert control over the world and exercise choice and self-restraint
negative outcome is persistent external locus of control and self-doubt
Erikson’s 3rd conflict is ____________ vs. ____________, from 3 to 6 years of age, where children learn basic cause and effect principles in physics, and start and finish out tasks for a purpose.
Favorable outcomes?
initiative vs. guilt
sense of purpose, ability to initate activities, and enjoying accomplishment
if guilt wins, children may be overcome by fear of punishment and may restrict themselves
Erikson’s 4th conflict is ____________ vs. ____________, from 6 to 12 years of age, where pre-adolescents become aware of themselves as individuals. Favorable outcomes?
industry vs. inferiority
Feel competent, exercise abilities and intelligence in the world, and affect the world in the way they desire
unfavorable resolution = inadequacy, low self-esteem, sense of inability to act competently
Erikson’s 5th conflict is ____________ vs. ____________, during adolescence (12 to 20 y/o). Adolescents expolre their independence and purpose. Favorable outcomes?
identity vs. role confusion
either form a single identity or become unsure about place in society – favorable outcome is fidelity, in which you see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties
Erikson’s 6th conflict is ____________ vs. ____________ during young adulthood (20 to 40 y/o), where people focus on creating long-lasting bonds with others. Favorable outcomes?
intimacy vs. isolation
favorable outcomes are love, ability to have intimate relationships, commitment to another person and goals
if not favorable, avoidance of commitment, alienation, distancing from others
withdrawn or superficial
Erikson’s 7th conflict is ____________ vs. ____________ during middle age (40 to 65 y/o), where the focus is on advancing present and future society. Favorable outcomes?
generativity vs. stagnation
productive, caring, and contributing member of society. If not overcome, the person acquires a sense of stagnation, and feels self-indulgent, bored, self-centered.
Erikson’s 8th and last stage is ____________ vs. ____________, which is reflective and contemplative. Favorable outcomes?
integrity vs. despair
asssurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and feeling that life is worthwhile
unfavorable - bitterness, worthless life, fear of death
Lawrence Kholberg’s theory of personality development focuses on what?
moral reasoning
What are the 3 phases of moral reasoning?
- Preconventional morality
- Conventional morality
- Postconventional morality
________________ morality is typical of preadolescent thinking and places emphasis on the consequences of the moral stage.
Preconventional
first phase of Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning
What are the 2 stages of preconventional morality? What characterizes them?
- Obedience - avoiding punishment
- Self-interest - gaining rewards
Stage 2 of preconventional morality, self-interest, is commonly referred to as ________________________ ________________ stage because it is based on the concepts of reciprocity and sharing.
instrumental relativist
Kohlberg’s second phase is ________________ morality, which starts to develop in early adolescence when individuals begin to see themselves in terms of their relationships to others.
conventional
What are the 2 stages in conventional morality? What characterizes them?
- Conformity - emphasis on the “nice person” orientation, seeks approval of others
- Law and order - maintains social order in the highest regard
Kohlberg’s third phase is ____________________ morality, which describes a level of reasoning that Kohlberg claimed not everyone was capable of and is based on social norms, which may conflict with laws.
postconventional
What are the 2 stages of postconventional morality? What characterizes them?
- Social contract - view moral rules as conventions designed to ensure the greater good, with reasoning focusing on individual rights
- Universal human ethics - decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles
Lev Vygotsky focused on cognitive development and how it relates to internalization of culture. He is known for the ________ of ________________ ________________________, referring to those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development.
zone of proximal development
requires the help of a “more knowledgeable other,” typically an adult
The ability to sense how anothers mind works is referred to as what?
theory of mind
Our understanding of how others see us, which relies on perceiving a reflection of ourselves based on the words and actions of others, is appropriately called the what?
looking-glass self
________________ describes the set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors that are characteristic of an individual across time and location.
Personality
What are the 3 major entities that Freud’s structural model comprise?
- id
- ego
- superego
The ____ consists of all the basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce. It functions according to the ________________ principle, in which the aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension.
id; pleasure principle
The ____________ process is the id’s response to frustration based on the pleasure principle: obtain satisfaction now, not later.
primary process
Mental imagery, like daydreaming or fantasy, fulfills the need for satisfaction created by the id. This is called ________ ________________.
wish fulfillment
Since the mental image cannot reduce tension on a permanent basis, the ________ comes into play. It operates according to the ____________ principle, taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id’s pleasure principle. This guidance is called the ________________ process.
ego; reality principle; secondary
The aim of the ____________ principle is to postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained.
reality
The ego also moderates the desires of the ____________, which are more refined and focused on the ideal self. It judges our actions, prides accomplishments, guilts at failures. What are the 2 subsystems of this?
superego;
1. conscience
2. ego-ideal
The ________________ is a collection of the improper actions for which a child is punished, and the ________________ consists of those proper actions for which a child is rewarded.
conscience; ego-ideal
Our access to the id, ego, and superego falls into what three main categories? What characterizes each?
- conscious thoughts
- preconscious - thoughts not currently aware of
- unconscious - repressed thoughts
Freud postulated that our behaviors are influenced by ________________, which are innate psychological representations of a biological need.
instincts
The ego’s recourse for relieving anxiety caused by the clash of the id and superego is through what? Why?
defense mechanisms; they deny, falsify, or distort reality and operate unconsciously
What are the 8 main defense mechanisms?
Rep the sup, guess the formation, project the ration, and diss the sub
- repression
- suppression
- regression
- reaction formation
- projection
- rationalization
- displacement
- sublimation
________________ is unconsciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness.
repression
________________is consciously removing an idea or feeling from consciousness.
suppression
________________ is returning to an earlier stage of development.
regression
________________ ________________ is an unacceptable impulse transformed into its opposite.
reaction formation
________________ is the attribution of wishes, desires, thoughts, or emotions to someone else.
projection
________________ is the justification of attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors.
rationalization
________________ is changing the target of an emotion, while feelings remain the same.
displacement
________________ is channeling of an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction.
sublimation
What are 2 popular tests related to the defense mechanism of projection?
- Rorschach inkblot test
- Thematic apperception test
Carl Jung identified the ____ as the conscious mind, and divided the unconscious into what 2 parts?
ego;
1. personal unconscious
2. collective unconscious
Carl Jung’s personal unconscious was like Freud’s, they are repressed thoughts. The collective unconscious is what? What is a major aspect of them?
A system shared among all humans and is a residue of our early ancestors’ experiences made up of images of common experiences - these images have emotional elements called archetypes
The ____________ is an archetype that is like a mask we wear in public; it is what we present to the world.
persona
The ____________ (feminine) and ____________ (masculine) describe gender-inappropriate qualities – in other words, feminine behaviors in males and masculine behaviors in females.
anima; animus
anima ~ emotional behavior; animus ~ power-seeking behavior
The ____________ archetype is responsible for the appearance of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions experienced in the unconscious mind.
shadow
Jung’s version of the ________, was the point of intersection between the collective unconscious, personal unconscious, and the conscious mind.
self
Jung developed _______ ___________________ testing to assess how unconscious elements may be influencing the conscious mind and thus the self. This involves patients responding to a single word with the first word that comes to mind.
word association
What are the 3 dichotomies of personality that Jung described? What does each describe?
- Extraversion vs. introversion - orientation toward external (E) vs. one’s personal inner world (I)
- Sensing vs. intuiting - obtaining objective info about world (S) vs. working with info abstractly (N)
- Thinking vs. feeling - logic and reason (T) vs. using a value system or personal beliefs (F)
In addition to Jung’s 3 dichotomies, there is a fourth, which is ____ vs. ____. Together, these created what personality test?
judging vs. perceiving - preferring orderliness (J) vs. spontaneity (P)
Alfred Adler’s theory focused on the immediate social imepratives of family and society and their effects on unconscious factors. He described the concept of the ________________ ____________, an individual’s sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority both physically and socially.
inferiority complex
striving for superiority drives the personality
this enhances the personality when it is oriented toward benefiting society, but yields disorder when it is selfish
Aspects important to Adler’s theory are the ____________ self, which is the force by which individuals shape their uniqueness and establish their personality, and the ____________ of ________, which represents the manifestation of the former aspect and describes a person’s unique way of achieving superiority.
creative; style of life
Also important to Adler is the concept of ____________ ____________, which is the notion that individuals are motivated more by their expectations of the future than by past experiences.
fictional finalism
Life would be perfect if only….
What are the main assumptions for Freud, Jung, and Adler?
- Freud - inborn instinct
- Jung - inborn archetypes
- Adler - striving for superiority
Karen Horney postualted that individuals with neurotic personalities are governed by 1 of ten ____________ needs that are directed towards making life and interactions bearable.
examples?
neurotic
e.g. need for affection and approval; self-sufficiency
Horney’s primary concept is that of basic ____________, which is vulnerability and helplessness stemmed from inadequate caregiving. Neglect and rejection can cause anger known as basic ____________.
anxiety; hostility
In _________ _____________ theory, object refers to the representation of caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy. These objects will persist into adulthood and impact our interactions with others.
object relations
____________ theorists focus on the value of individuals and take a more person-centered approach.
humanistic
Humanism is often associated with ____________ therapy, in which practitioners take a holistic view of the self, seeing each individual as a complete person, rather than reducing them to individual behaviors or drives.
Gestalt
Kurt Lewin’s ________ ________ theory, puts very little stock in constraints on personalities like fixed traits, habits, structures like id, ego, superego. Rather, it focuses on one’s current state of mind, which is the sum of the forces (influences) on the individual at that time.
force field theory
According to Maslow, self-actualized people are more likely to have ________ experiences: profound and deeply moving experiences that have important and lasting effects on the individual.
peak
George Kelly described ____________ ____________ psychology. He thought of the individual as a scientist, who tests predictions about the behavior of significant people in the individual’s life. The individual constructs a scheme of anticipation of what others do. The anxious persion is one who has difficulty constructing and understanding the variables.
personal construct
Kelly believed that psychotherapy could help people acquire new constructs that could help them successfully predict troublesome events and then integrate these new constructs into existing constructs.
Carl Rogers is most well known for ________-________________ therapy. He believed that people have the freedom to control their own behavior and are not slaves to the unconscious (psychoanalyst) nor subjects of faulty learning (behaviorist). This therapy helps clients reflect on problems, make choices, generate solutions, take action, and determine their destiny.
person/client-centered
Rogers also originated the concepts of real and ideal self - this therapy helps clients reconcile the differences between the various selves and reduce incongruence caused by stress
Carl Rogers pioneered the concept of ____________________ ____________ regard, a therapeutic technique in which the therapist accepts the client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment.
unconditional positive
________ theorists attempt to create a taxonomy of personality types, while ________ theorists prefer to describe individual personality as the sum of a person’s characteristic behaviors.
type; trait
Early attempts at personality types are discredited today, e.g. Greeks based them on ____________, or body fluids, an imbalance of which could lead to various personality disorders.
humors
In the early 20th century, William Sheldon proposed personality types based on body type called ________________________.
somatotypes
Another theory divides personalities in Types A and B. What characterizes these personalities?
Type A - competitive and compulsive
Type B - laid-back and relaxed
Type A more prone to heart disease; not much evidence to support this
Myers-Briggs is another type of (type/trait?) theory.
Type
Trait theorists use ____________ of behaviors to describe individuals.
clusters
Hans and Sybil Eysenck used ____________ ____________ to group behaviors that typically occur together and assigned labels to those groups. These groups of behaviors are often also called ____________.
factor analysis; traits
The Eysencks described what three traits in the PEN model?
- Psychoticism
- Extraversion
- Neuroticism
Which of the PEN traits?
____________ is a measure of nonconformity or social deviance.
Psychoticism
Which PEN trait?
____________ is a measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation.
Extraversion
Which PEN trait?
____________ is a measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations.
Neuroticism
____________ affect is related to neuroticism and describes how a person thinks of themselves and experiences negative emotions.
Negative
The PEN theory has been expanded to what is known as the _______ ___________ Model, aka the _______ ___________, which uses dimensions of 5 traits.
Five Factor Model
Big Five
What are the Big Five traits?
OCEAN
Openness (to experience)
Conscientiousness (self-control)
Extraversion
Agreeableness (maintaining peace/harmony)
Neuroticism
Gordon Allport, primarily a trait theorist, listed three basic types of traits or dispositions. What are they?
Cardinal, central, secondary
Which of Allport’s traits?
____________ traits are traits around which people organize their lives.
Cardinal
Not everyone develops them! e.g. Mother Teresa’s could be self-sacrifice
Which of Allport’s traits?
____________ traits represent major characteristics of the personality that are easy to infer, e.g. honesty and charisma.
Central
Which of Allport’s traits?
____________ traits are other personal characteristics that are more limited in occurrence: aspects of one’s personality that only appear in close groups or specific social situations.
Secondary
A major part of Allport’s theory is the concept of ____________ ____________, in which a behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior.
functional autonomy
e.g. originally hunted for food, now hunts for enjoyment as well
David McClelland identified a personality trait known as the need for achievement (N-Ach) - these people are concerned with what what and what do they avoid?
Concerned with achievement; avoid high risks
Set realistic goals
The ____________ perspective (BF Skinner) is based heavily on operant conditioning. Personality is a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced over time.
THerapy should focus on learning skills and changing behaviors through operatn conditioning techniques, e.g. ____________ ____________.
behaviorist; token economies
The ____________ ____________ perspective takes behaviorism a step further, focusining on not just how the environment influences behavior but how we interact with that environment.
social cognitive
A central idea to the social cognitive perspective is Albert Bandura’s idea of ____________ ____________, which refers to the idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given stiuation.
reciprocal determinism
people choose environments that suit their personalities and their personalities determine how they feel/react to events in their environment
The ____________ perspective holds that personality can be explained as a result of genetic expression in the brain.
biological
The dichotomy presented by the social cognitive and biological perspectives of personality is similar to another debate in pscyhology: whether behavior is primarily determined by an individual’s personality (the ________________ approach) or by the environment and context (the ________________ approach).
dispositional; situational
