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MCAT Behavioral Sciences > Chapter 1: Biology and Behavior > Flashcards

Chapter 1: Biology and Behavior Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Franz Gall known for? What doctrine, specifically?

A

Linking behavior, intellect, and personality to brain anatomy and developing phrenology, a doctrine that says that if a particular trait was well-developed, then that part of the brain responsible for that trait would expand

Could use bumps on brain to measure psychological attributes

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2
Q

What is Pierre Flourens known for? What technique, specifically?

A

First to study functions of sections of the brain.
Used extirpation, aka ablation, to surgically remove parts of the brain and observe the behavioral consequences

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3
Q

What is William James known for? What system of thought, specifically?

A

Father of American psychology, studying how mind adapts to environment.

His views formed the foundation for functionalism, which studies how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments

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4
Q

What is John Dewey known for?

A

Starting functionalism, criticized the reflex arc, which breaks the process of reacting to a stimulus into discrete parts

Believed that psych should study an organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to the environment

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5
Q

What is Paul Broca known for?

A

Examined behavioral deficits of people with brain damage.

First to link specific functional impairments with specific brain lesions

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6
Q

What part of the brain is Paul Broca known for? What is it responsible for?

A

Broca’s area = speech production

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7
Q

Who is Hermann von Helmholtz and what is he known for?

A

Measuring the speed of a nerve impulse and relating it to reaction time, etc.

Made psych a quantifiable science

Linked behavior and underlying nervous system activity

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8
Q

What is Sir Charles Sherrington known for?

A

Inferred the existence of synapses.

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9
Q

What are the 3 kinds of nerve cells in the nervous system? What are alternate names?

A
  1. Sensory neurons (afferent)
  2. Motor neurons (efferent)
  3. Interneurons
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10
Q

What do sensory neurons do and what is another name for them?

A

Transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain

Also known as afferent neurons

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11
Q

What do motor neurons do and what is another name for them?

A

Transmit motor information from the brain to spinal cord to muscles and glands

Also known as efferent neurons

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12
Q

Where are interneurons found?

A

They are found between other neurons and are predominantly located in the brain and spinal cord

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13
Q

Which nerve cell type is the most numerous?

A

Interneurons

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14
Q

What type of behavior are interneurons linked with?

A

Reflexive behavior

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15
Q

What type of neural circuit controls reflexive behavior?

A

Reflex arc

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16
Q

How do interneurons aid in the reflex arcs? Give example.

A

If someone steps on a nail, sensory neurons transmit pain signals up to the brain via interneurons. Instead of waiting for the brain to send a response signal back, interneurons in the spinal cord send signals to the muscles of both legs directly, causing the individual to reflexively withdraw the foot in pain.

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17
Q

What are the two primary components of the nervous system?

A
  1. The central nervous system (CNS)
  2. The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
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18
Q

What comprises the CNS?

A

Brain and spinal cord

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19
Q

What comprises the PNS?

A

The nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord

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20
Q

What are the 2 sets of nerves that comprise the PNS?

A

Spinal nerves and cranial nerves, which emanate from the spinal cord and brain, respectively

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21
Q

How many spinal nerves are there?

A

31 pairs

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22
Q

How many cranial nerves are there?

A

12 pairs

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23
Q

What does the PNS connect the CNS to?

A

To the rest of the body

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24
Q

What 2 main groups is the PNS subdivided into?

A
  1. Somatic nervous system
  2. Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
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25
Q

What types of neurons does the somatic nervous system consist of?

A

Sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints, and muscles

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26
Q

Where do sensory neurons transmit information to and from? Through what type of fibers?

A

From the body toward the CNS via afferent fibers.

afferent = “arriving” at the CNS

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27
Q

Where do motor neurons transmit information to and from? Through what type of fibers?

A

From the CNS toward the body via efferent fibers.

efferent = “exiting” the brain

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28
Q

What 2 main components is the autonomic nervous system divided into?

A
  1. Sympathetic nervous system
  2. Parasympathetic nervous system

They act antagonistically

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29
Q

What does the autonomic nervous system do?

A

Manages involuntary muscles associated with internal organs and glands

Regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretions

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30
Q

What is the main role of the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

Conserve energy

Reduces HR, active in sleep state, digestion.

"”Rest and digest”

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31
Q

Which neurotransmitter is responsible for parasympathetic responses?

A

Acetylcholine

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32
Q

“What is the main role of the sympathetic nervous system?

A

It is activated by stress and triggers the “fight-or-flight” reactions

Increases HR, distributes blood to msucles, dilates eyes, etc.

“fight or flight”

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33
Q

Draw a diagram of the structures of the nervous system.

Include these terms: somatic, central, parasympathetic, brain, autonomic, spinal cord, sympathetic, nervous system, peripheral

A
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34
Q

What is a 3-layered sheath of connective tissue that covers the brain?

A

Meninges

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35
Q

What are the 3 layers of the meninges, outside to inside?

A
  1. Dura mater
  2. Arachnoid mater
  3. Pia mater

DAP

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36
Q

What is the dura mater and what is it connected to?

A

An outer layer of connective tissue connected directly to the skull

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37
Q

What is the arachnoid mater?

A

Fibrous, weblike structure

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38
Q

What is the pia mater and what is it connected to?

A

Inner layer connected to the brain

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39
Q

What is cerebrospinal fluid?

A

An aqueous solution that nourishes the brain and spinal cord and provides a protective cushion

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40
Q

What is the role of the meninges?

A

To protect the brain by keeping it anchored to the skull and resorbing cerebrospinal fluid

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41
Q

What produces cerebrospinal fluid and where are they located?

A

Specialized cells that line the ventricles (internal cavities) of the brain

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42
Q

What are the 3 main parts you can divide the brain into?

A
  • hindbrain
  • midbrain
  • forebrain
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43
Q

Where are the more primitive brain structures located?

A

At the base of the brain

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44
Q

Which 2 parts comprise the brainstem of the brain and developed earlier?

Choose from forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain

A

Hindbrain and midbrain

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45
Q

What are the 5 major parts of the forebrain?

A
  1. Cerebral cortex
  2. Basal ganglia
  3. Limbic system
  4. Thalamus
  5. Hypothalamus

Cir, Bacon, Lettuce, Tomato, and Ham, please.

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46
Q

What is the limbic system and which part of the brain is it part of?

A

A group of neural structures primarily associated with emotion and memory. It is part of the forebrain.

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47
Q

What is the most recent evolutionary development of the human brain?

A

The cerebral cortex

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48
Q

What is the cerebral cortex and what does it do?

A

The outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres that is associated with complex activities, e.g. language, problem solving, impulse control, planning

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49
Q

What is the basal ganglia’s role?

A

Movement

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50
Q

What is the thalamus’ role?

A

Sensory relay station (except smell) - sorts and transmits to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex

Thalamus = train station

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51
Q

What are the hypothalamus’ roles?

A

Homeostatic functions, controls endocrine and autonomic NS functions

Hunger and thirst; emotion (especially during high arousal states, aggressive/sexual behavior)

hypo = hippo = hungry hippo

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52
Q

What are the 2 main components of the midbrain?

A

Inferior and superior colliculi

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53
Q

What is the primary function of the midbrain?

A

Sensorimotor reflexes - receives sensory and motor info.

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54
Q

What type of responses is the midbrain associated with?

A

Involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli

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55
Q

What are the 4 major components of the hindbrain?

A
  1. Cerebellum
  2. Medulla oblongata
  3. Reticular formation
  4. Pons

bell got a medal! tickle pon

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56
Q

What are the 4 major components of the hindbrain?

A
  1. Cerebellum
  2. Medulla oblongata
  3. Reticular formation
  4. Pons

CMRP

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57
Q

What is the medulla oblongata’s role?

A

Heart, vital reflexes (vomiting, coughing), digestion

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58
Q

What is the reticular formation’s role?

A

Arousal and alertness

reTICular = tickle

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59
Q

What is the pons’ role?

A

Communication within the brain, breathing

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60
Q

Draw a diagram with the major divisions and principal structures of the brain.

There should be 3 major divisions with 5, 2, and 4 principal structures per division.

A

Forebrain
* Cerebral cortex
* Basal ganglia
* Limbic system
* Thalamus
* Hypothalamus

Midbrain
* Inferior colliculus
* Superior colliculus

Hindbrain
* Cerebellum
* Medulla oblongata
* Reticular formation
* Pons

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61
Q

What does the brain develop from in the prenatal stage?

A

Neural tube

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62
Q

What are the 5 subdivisions of the embryonic neural tube? How are they divided across the 3 major divisions?

TD
M
MM

A

Forebrain (Prosencephalon)
* Telencephalon
* Diencephalon

Midbrain (Mesencephalon)

Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)
* Metencephalon
* Myelencephalon

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63
Q

Where is the hindbrain located?

A

Where the brain meets the spinal cord

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64
Q

What is another name for the hindbrain in embryonic development?

A

Rhombencephalon

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65
Q

What is the role of the hindbrain?

A

Vital functions necessary for survival

Balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes like sleeping and waking

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66
Q

What are the 2 major divisions of the hindbrain (rhombencephalon)?

A

Myelencephalon
Metencephalon

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67
Q

What does the myelencephalon become?

A

Medulla oblongata

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68
Q

What 2 structures does the metencephalon become?

A

Pons and cerebellum

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69
Q

What is the progression of the hindbrain during development?

What structures does it divide into and eventually become?

A

Rhombencephalon
* Myelencephalon –> medulla oblongata
* Metencephalon –> pons and cerebellum

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70
Q

How are the cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and pons positioned in the developed brain?

A

Medulla oblongata is the lowest structure. Pons is right above it. The cerebellum is at the top of the hindbrain and mushrooms out of the pons.

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71
Q

What is located above the hindbrain?

A

The midbrain

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72
Q

What is another name for the midbrain in embryonic development?

A

Mesenecephalon

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73
Q

What are the prominent nuclei in the midbrain called? What are 2 major sets?

A

Colliculi - inferior and superior colliculus

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74
Q

What type of input does the superior colliculus receive?

A

Visual sensory input

S

75
Q

What type of input does the inferior colliculus receive?

A

Auditory sensory input

76
Q

What is another name for the forebrain during embryonic development?

A

Prosencephalon

77
Q

What is the forebrain’s role?

A

Associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes (emotion and memory!)

78
Q

What are the 2 major divisions of the forebrain (prosecenphalon)?

A

Telencephalon
Diencephalon

79
Q

What 3 structures does the telencephalon become? (CBL)

A

Cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system

80
Q

What 4 structures does the diencephalon become?
(THPP)

A

Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Posterior pituitary gland
Pienal gland

81
Q

Draw a diagram of the divisions of the hindbrain (include the alternative names for each)

2 major divisions, each becomes 1 and 2 other structures

A

Metencephalon (pons and cerebellum)
Myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)

82
Q

What is neuropsychology?

A

Study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain

83
Q

What is an EEG and what is it used for?

A

electroencephalogram = records broad electrical patterns for larger groups of neurons in the brainusing electrodes

84
Q

What is rCBF?

A

Regional cerebral blood flow = detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to the different parts of the brain

Assumes that more blood flow = actively engaged in cognitive fxn

85
Q

How is blood flow measured in an rCBF?

A

The patient inhales a harmless radioactive gas and a device is used to detect the radioactivity in the bloodstream

Radioactivity levels correlated with rCBF

86
Q

What is a CT or CAT scan?

A

computed (axial) tomography scan = multiple X-rays taken at different angles and processes by a computer to produce cross-sectional images of the tissue

87
Q

What is a PET scan?

A

positron emission tomography scan = radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed into the body, and its dispersion and uptake throughout the target tissue is imaged

88
Q

What is an MRI?

A

magnetic resonance imaging = magnetic field that interacts with hydrogen atoms is used to map out hydrogen dense regions of the body

89
Q

What is fMRI? What is it useful for?

A

functional magnetic resonance imaging = same base technique as MRI, but specifically measures changes associated with blood flow; useful for monitoring neural activity

90
Q

What is the cerebellum’s role?

A

Refined motor movements (posture, balance, movement coordination)

Bell = balancing bell

91
Q

What are the 3 main divisions of the hypothalamus? (LVA)

A

Lateral hypothalamus
Ventromedial hypothalamus
Anterior hypothalamus

92
Q

What part of the brain detects imbalances in homeostasis?

A

Hypothalamus

93
Q

What does the lateral hypothalamus do? (hungry lats)

A

Hunger center; detects when body needs food/fluids

94
Q

What does the ventromedial hypothalamus do?

A

Satiety center; provides signals to stop eating

95
Q

What does the anterior hypothalamus do?

A

Controls sexual behavior, regulates sleep and body temperature

96
Q

What is the posterior pituitary comprised of and what does it release?

A

Comprised of axonal projections from the hypothalamus and releases the hypothalamic horomones, antidiuretic hormone (ADH, aka vasopressin) and oxytocin

97
Q

What does the pineal gland do and what does it secrete?

A

Secretes melatonin to regulate circadian rhythm and receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight

98
Q

What do the basal ganglia do? Where do they relay from and to?

A

Coordinates muscle movement as they receive info from the cortex and relay this info (via the extrapyramidal motor system) to the brain and the spinal cord

99
Q

What part of the brain is the extrapyramidal system part of?

A

Basal ganglia

100
Q

What does the extrapyramidal system do?

A

Gathers information about body position and carries this info to the CNS, but does not function directly through motor neurons.

They make our movements smooth and our posture steady

101
Q

What is a common chronic illness associated with the basal ganglia?

A

Parkinson’s disease

102
Q

What are the 4 main components of the limbic system? (ASHA)

A

Amygdala
Septal nuclei
Hippocampus
Anterior cingulate cortex

103
Q

What does the sePtal nuclei contain?

A

One of the primary pleasure centers in the brain (P)

104
Q

What does the amygdala do?

A

Defensive and aggressive behaviors, including fear and rage

Myg = MIG = jet fighter plane

105
Q

What does the hippocampus do?

A

Consolidates information to form long-term memories and redistributes remote memories to the cerebral cortex

106
Q

The hippocampus communicates with other portions of the limbic system through a long projection called the ____________.

A

Fornix

107
Q

What type of amnesia is associated with not being able to establish new long-term memories?

A

Anterograde amnesia

108
Q

What type of amnesia is associated with losing memories that transpired before brain injury?

A

Retrograde amnesia

109
Q

What does the anterior cingulate cortex do? What is it connected to?

A

It is connected to the frontal and parietal lobes, thus is important to higher order cognitive processes, e.g. regulation of impulse control and decision-making

110
Q

What is the outer surface of the brain called? What is another name for it?

A

Cerebral cortex

aka neocortex

111
Q

What are the bumps and folds of the cerebral cortex called?

A

Gyri and sulci, respectively

112
Q

What are the 2 halves of the cerebral cortex called?

A

Cerebral hemispheres

113
Q

What are the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex called?

A

Frontal
Parietal
Occipital
Temporal

F-POT

114
Q

What are the 2 main regions of the frontal lobe?

A

Prefrontal cortex
Motor cortex

115
Q

What is the role of the prefrontal cortex?

A

Supervises and directs the operations of other brain regions

Also supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning

ex. communicates w/ reticular formation to regulate attention/alertness

with memory: it does not story memories, but reminds people to remember something

116
Q

What happens if someone’s prefontal cortex is damaged?

A

Impulsive and less in control, cry more, angry outbursts

117
Q

What is an association area?

A

An area that integrates input from diverse regions of the brain

e.g. prefrontal cortex

118
Q

What is a projection area?

A

Perform more rudimentary perceptual and motor tasks

119
Q

What is an example of a projection area?

A

Primary motor cortex on the precentral gyrus (in front of central sulcus) - it initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles

120
Q

Which part of the frontal lobe is important for speech production? (talk to me bro)

A

Broca’s area - usually only found in the left hemisphere (the dominant hemi.)

121
Q

Which cortex is located on the parietal lobe?

A

Somatosensory cortex

122
Q

Which gyrus is the somatosensory cortex located on?

A

Postcentral gyrus

123
Q

Which cortex is located in the occiptal lobes?

A

Visual cortex

aka striate cortex

124
Q

Which cortex is located in the occiptal lobes?

A

Visual cortex

aka striate cortex

125
Q

What cortex is located in the temporal lobes?

A

Auditory cortex

126
Q

Which part of the temporal lobe is important for language reception and comprehension?

A

Wernicke’s area

127
Q

Which part of the brain associated with memory formation is located deep inside the temporal lobe?

A

Hippocampus

128
Q

How do we describe it when one side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body?

A

Contralateral

129
Q

How do we describe it when the cerebral hemispheres communicate with the same side of the body?

A

Ipsilateral

130
Q

What is the dominant hemisphere associated with? Which side is usually dominant?

A

The one more heavily stimulated during language reception and production; manages details, very analytic (logic, math, langauge)

Left

131
Q

What is the nondominant hemisphere associated with? Which side is it usually?

A

Intuition, creativity, music cognition, spatial processing – processes pieces of a stimulus and assembles them

132
Q

A ________________ is a chemical used by neurons to send signals to other neurons

A

Neurotransmitter

133
Q

A drug that mimics the action of some neurotransmitter is called an _________.

A

Agonist

134
Q

Drugs can also act by blocking the action of neurotransmitters, and such drugs are called _____________.

A

Antagonists

135
Q

Is acetylcholine found in the CNS, PNS, or both?

A

Both

136
Q

What is acetylcholine used for in the PNS?

A

Used by the parasympathetic nervous system and a small portion of the sympathetic nervous system to transmit nerve impulses to muscles

137
Q

What is acetylcholine used for in the CNS?

A

Linked to attention and arousal

138
Q

What are the 3 catecholamines? What do they play an important role in?

A

Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
Dopamine

important for emotions

139
Q

What is another name for epinephrine?

A

Adrenaline

140
Q

What is another name for norepinephrine?

A

Noradrenaline

141
Q

What are epinephrine and norepinephrine involved in?

A

Controlling alertness and wakefulness by promoting the fight-or-flight response

142
Q

What mental disorder are low levels of norepinephrine associated with? High levels?

A

Depression

Anxiety and mania

143
Q

What is dopamine important for?

A

Movement and posture

144
Q

Which part of the brain has high concentrations of dopamine?

A

Basal ganglia - helps smooth movements and maintain postural stability

145
Q

What common type of mental disorder is caused by imbalances in dopamine transmission? (usually excess or oversensitivity to this NT)

A

Schizophrenia

146
Q

What movement disorder is associated with a loss of dopaminergic neurons? In what part of the brain?

A

Parkinson’s disease; basal ganglia

147
Q

Which neurotransmitters are monoamines?

A

The catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine)
Serotonin

148
Q

What role does serotonin play?

A

Regulates mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming

Plays role in depression and mania

149
Q

What mental disorder are low levels of norepinephrine associated with? High levels?

A

Depression

Anxiety and mania

150
Q

What mental disorder are low levels of serotonin associated with? High levels?

A

High = mania
Low = depression

151
Q

What does GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) produce and what role does it play?

A

Produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials

Stabilizes neural activity in the brain

152
Q

How does GABA work? Does it hyperpolarize or hypopolarize?

A

Causes hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane

153
Q

What does glycine do and where does it act?

A

Inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNS (increases Cl- influx into the neuron)

Hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane, like GABA.

154
Q

What does glutamate do?

A

Excitatory neurotransmitters in the CNS (unlike glycine)

155
Q

Are neuropeptides quickers or slower than neurotransmitter?

A

Slower

156
Q

Why are neuropeptides slower than neurotransmitters?

A

They involve a more complicated chain of events in the postsynaptic cell than NTs

157
Q

Do neuropeptides have a longer or shorter effect on postsynaptic cell?

A

Longer

158
Q

What are the neuropeptides that are natural painkillers produced in the brain?

A

Endorphins

159
Q

Which brain structure links the endocrine and nervous systems?

A

Hypothalamus

160
Q

What gland does the hypothalamus regulate the hormonal function of?

A

Pituitary gland

161
Q

How does the hypothalamus regulate the pituitary gland?

A

Endocrine release of hormones into the hypophyseal portal system (directly connects the 2 organs)

162
Q

Where is the pituitary gland located and what are the 2 parts?

A

Base of the brain; anterior and posterior

163
Q

What does the anterior pituitary do?

A

Releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands elsewhere in the body

Controlled by hypothalamus!!!

164
Q

What happens when an endocrine gland is activated by the pituitary?

A

It releases its own characteristic hormone

165
Q

Where are the adrenal glands alocated and what are its 2 parts?

A

On top of the kidneys; adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex

166
Q

What neurotransmitters does the adrenal medulla release, and part of which NS?

A

Epinephrine and norepinephrine

Sympathetic NS

167
Q

Give 3 examples

What type of hormones does the adrenal cortex?

A

Corticosteroids, e.g. cortisol (stress), testosterone and estrogen (sex hormones)

168
Q

What are the sex glands?

A

Gonads - testes and ovaries

169
Q

What is a critical period?

A

A specific period in development where children are particularly susceptible to environmental factors

170
Q

What marks the start of the development of the nervous system? At what point during gestation does this occur?

A

Neurulation; 3-4 weeks

171
Q

What occurs during neurulation?

A

The ectoderm overlying the notochord furrows to form a neural groove surrounded by 2 neural folds

172
Q

What are the cells at the leading edge of the neural fold called?

A

Neural crest

173
Q

What are some tissues that the neural crest will later comprise?

A

Dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes, calcitonin-producing cells of the thyroid

174
Q

When the neural folds close, what forms? What does this eventually become?

A

Neural tube; central nervous system

175
Q

What are the 2 plates of the neural tube? What do they differentiate into?

A

Alar plate = sensory neurons
Basal plate = motor neurons

176
Q

A ________ is a behavior that occurs in response to a given stimulus without higher cognitive input.

A

reflex

177
Q

What is the rooting reflex?

A

Turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek

178
Q

What is the Moro reflex? When does it disappear?

A

Infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting their arms and crying; disappears after 4 months

179
Q

What is the Babinski reflex?

A

Toes spread automatically when sole of foot is stimulated

180
Q

What is the grasping reflex?

A

When infants close their fingers around an object placed in the hand

181
Q

When do stranger and separation anxiety develop?

A

7 months and 1 year, respectively

182
Q

What is parallel play and when does it start?

A

Children play alongside each other without influencing each other’s behavior

183
Q

When do children have an awareness of their assigned gender?

A

3 years old

184
Q

When does conformity and romatnic feelings begin to develop?

A

Age 5

MCAT Behavioral Sciences (12 decks)

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