Chapter 1: Biology and Behavior Flashcards
What is Franz Gall known for? What doctrine, specifically?
Linking behavior, intellect, and personality to brain anatomy and developing phrenology, a doctrine that says that if a particular trait was well-developed, then that part of the brain responsible for that trait would expand
Could use bumps on brain to measure psychological attributes
What is Pierre Flourens known for? What technique, specifically?
First to study functions of sections of the brain.
Used extirpation, aka ablation, to surgically remove parts of the brain and observe the behavioral consequences
What is William James known for? What system of thought, specifically?
Father of American psychology, studying how mind adapts to environment.
His views formed the foundation for functionalism, which studies how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments
What is John Dewey known for?
Starting functionalism, criticized the reflex arc, which breaks the process of reacting to a stimulus into discrete parts
Believed that psych should study an organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to the environment
What is Paul Broca known for?
Examined behavioral deficits of people with brain damage.
First to link specific functional impairments with specific brain lesions
What part of the brain is Paul Broca known for? What is it responsible for?
Broca’s area = speech production
Who is Hermann von Helmholtz and what is he known for?
Measuring the speed of a nerve impulse and relating it to reaction time, etc.
Made psych a quantifiable science
Linked behavior and underlying nervous system activity
What is Sir Charles Sherrington known for?
Inferred the existence of synapses.
What are the 3 kinds of nerve cells in the nervous system? What are alternate names?
- Sensory neurons (afferent)
- Motor neurons (efferent)
- Interneurons
What do sensory neurons do and what is another name for them?
Transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain
Also known as afferent neurons
What do motor neurons do and what is another name for them?
Transmit motor information from the brain to spinal cord to muscles and glands
Also known as efferent neurons
Where are interneurons found?
They are found between other neurons and are predominantly located in the brain and spinal cord
Which nerve cell type is the most numerous?
Interneurons
What type of behavior are interneurons linked with?
Reflexive behavior
What type of neural circuit controls reflexive behavior?
Reflex arc
How do interneurons aid in the reflex arcs? Give example.
If someone steps on a nail, sensory neurons transmit pain signals up to the brain via interneurons. Instead of waiting for the brain to send a response signal back, interneurons in the spinal cord send signals to the muscles of both legs directly, causing the individual to reflexively withdraw the foot in pain.
What are the two primary components of the nervous system?
- The central nervous system (CNS)
- The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
What comprises the CNS?
Brain and spinal cord
What comprises the PNS?
The nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord
What are the 2 sets of nerves that comprise the PNS?
Spinal nerves and cranial nerves, which emanate from the spinal cord and brain, respectively
How many spinal nerves are there?
31 pairs
How many cranial nerves are there?
12 pairs
What does the PNS connect the CNS to?
To the rest of the body
What 2 main groups is the PNS subdivided into?
- Somatic nervous system
- Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
What types of neurons does the somatic nervous system consist of?
Sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints, and muscles
Where do sensory neurons transmit information to and from? Through what type of fibers?
From the body toward the CNS via afferent fibers.
afferent = “arriving” at the CNS
Where do motor neurons transmit information to and from? Through what type of fibers?
From the CNS toward the body via efferent fibers.
efferent = “exiting” the brain
What 2 main components is the autonomic nervous system divided into?
- Sympathetic nervous system
- Parasympathetic nervous system
They act antagonistically
What does the autonomic nervous system do?
Manages involuntary muscles associated with internal organs and glands
Regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretions
What is the main role of the parasympathetic nervous system?
Conserve energy
Reduces HR, active in sleep state, digestion.
"”Rest and digest”
Which neurotransmitter is responsible for parasympathetic responses?
Acetylcholine
“What is the main role of the sympathetic nervous system?
It is activated by stress and triggers the “fight-or-flight” reactions
Increases HR, distributes blood to msucles, dilates eyes, etc.
“fight or flight”
Draw a diagram of the structures of the nervous system.
Include these terms: somatic, central, parasympathetic, brain, autonomic, spinal cord, sympathetic, nervous system, peripheral
What is a 3-layered sheath of connective tissue that covers the brain?
Meninges
What are the 3 layers of the meninges, outside to inside?
- Dura mater
- Arachnoid mater
- Pia mater
DAP
What is the dura mater and what is it connected to?
An outer layer of connective tissue connected directly to the skull
What is the arachnoid mater?
Fibrous, weblike structure
What is the pia mater and what is it connected to?
Inner layer connected to the brain
What is cerebrospinal fluid?
An aqueous solution that nourishes the brain and spinal cord and provides a protective cushion
What is the role of the meninges?
To protect the brain by keeping it anchored to the skull and resorbing cerebrospinal fluid
What produces cerebrospinal fluid and where are they located?
Specialized cells that line the ventricles (internal cavities) of the brain
What are the 3 main parts you can divide the brain into?
- hindbrain
- midbrain
- forebrain
Where are the more primitive brain structures located?
At the base of the brain
Which 2 parts comprise the brainstem of the brain and developed earlier?
Choose from forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
Hindbrain and midbrain
What are the 5 major parts of the forebrain?
- Cerebral cortex
- Basal ganglia
- Limbic system
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
Cir, Bacon, Lettuce, Tomato, and Ham, please.
What is the limbic system and which part of the brain is it part of?
A group of neural structures primarily associated with emotion and memory. It is part of the forebrain.
What is the most recent evolutionary development of the human brain?
The cerebral cortex
What is the cerebral cortex and what does it do?
The outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres that is associated with complex activities, e.g. language, problem solving, impulse control, planning
What is the basal ganglia’s role?
Movement
What is the thalamus’ role?
Sensory relay station (except smell) - sorts and transmits to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex
Thalamus = train station
What are the hypothalamus’ roles?
Homeostatic functions, controls endocrine and autonomic NS functions
Hunger and thirst; emotion (especially during high arousal states, aggressive/sexual behavior)
hypo = hippo = hungry hippo
What are the 2 main components of the midbrain?
Inferior and superior colliculi
What is the primary function of the midbrain?
Sensorimotor reflexes - receives sensory and motor info.
What type of responses is the midbrain associated with?
Involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli
What are the 4 major components of the hindbrain?
- Cerebellum
- Medulla oblongata
- Reticular formation
- Pons
bell got a medal! tickle pon
What are the 4 major components of the hindbrain?
- Cerebellum
- Medulla oblongata
- Reticular formation
- Pons
CMRP
What is the medulla oblongata’s role?
Heart, vital reflexes (vomiting, coughing), digestion
What is the reticular formation’s role?
Arousal and alertness
reTICular = tickle
What is the pons’ role?
Communication within the brain, breathing
Draw a diagram with the major divisions and principal structures of the brain.
There should be 3 major divisions with 5, 2, and 4 principal structures per division.
Forebrain
* Cerebral cortex
* Basal ganglia
* Limbic system
* Thalamus
* Hypothalamus
Midbrain
* Inferior colliculus
* Superior colliculus
Hindbrain
* Cerebellum
* Medulla oblongata
* Reticular formation
* Pons
What does the brain develop from in the prenatal stage?
Neural tube
What are the 5 subdivisions of the embryonic neural tube? How are they divided across the 3 major divisions?
TD
M
MM
Forebrain (Prosencephalon)
* Telencephalon
* Diencephalon
Midbrain (Mesencephalon)
Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)
* Metencephalon
* Myelencephalon
Where is the hindbrain located?
Where the brain meets the spinal cord
What is another name for the hindbrain in embryonic development?
Rhombencephalon
What is the role of the hindbrain?
Vital functions necessary for survival
Balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes like sleeping and waking
What are the 2 major divisions of the hindbrain (rhombencephalon)?
Myelencephalon
Metencephalon
What does the myelencephalon become?
Medulla oblongata
What 2 structures does the metencephalon become?
Pons and cerebellum
What is the progression of the hindbrain during development?
What structures does it divide into and eventually become?
Rhombencephalon
* Myelencephalon –> medulla oblongata
* Metencephalon –> pons and cerebellum
How are the cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and pons positioned in the developed brain?
Medulla oblongata is the lowest structure. Pons is right above it. The cerebellum is at the top of the hindbrain and mushrooms out of the pons.
What is located above the hindbrain?
The midbrain
What is another name for the midbrain in embryonic development?
Mesenecephalon
What are the prominent nuclei in the midbrain called? What are 2 major sets?
Colliculi - inferior and superior colliculus
What type of input does the superior colliculus receive?
Visual sensory input
S
What type of input does the inferior colliculus receive?
Auditory sensory input
What is another name for the forebrain during embryonic development?
Prosencephalon
What is the forebrain’s role?
Associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes (emotion and memory!)
What are the 2 major divisions of the forebrain (prosecenphalon)?
Telencephalon
Diencephalon
What 3 structures does the telencephalon become? (CBL)
Cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system
What 4 structures does the diencephalon become?
(THPP)
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Posterior pituitary gland
Pienal gland
Draw a diagram of the divisions of the hindbrain (include the alternative names for each)
2 major divisions, each becomes 1 and 2 other structures
Metencephalon (pons and cerebellum)
Myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)
What is neuropsychology?
Study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain
What is an EEG and what is it used for?
electroencephalogram = records broad electrical patterns for larger groups of neurons in the brainusing electrodes
What is rCBF?
Regional cerebral blood flow = detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to the different parts of the brain
Assumes that more blood flow = actively engaged in cognitive fxn
How is blood flow measured in an rCBF?
The patient inhales a harmless radioactive gas and a device is used to detect the radioactivity in the bloodstream
Radioactivity levels correlated with rCBF
What is a CT or CAT scan?
computed (axial) tomography scan = multiple X-rays taken at different angles and processes by a computer to produce cross-sectional images of the tissue
What is a PET scan?
positron emission tomography scan = radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed into the body, and its dispersion and uptake throughout the target tissue is imaged
What is an MRI?
magnetic resonance imaging = magnetic field that interacts with hydrogen atoms is used to map out hydrogen dense regions of the body
What is fMRI? What is it useful for?
functional magnetic resonance imaging = same base technique as MRI, but specifically measures changes associated with blood flow; useful for monitoring neural activity
What is the cerebellum’s role?
Refined motor movements (posture, balance, movement coordination)
Bell = balancing bell
What are the 3 main divisions of the hypothalamus? (LVA)
Lateral hypothalamus
Ventromedial hypothalamus
Anterior hypothalamus
What part of the brain detects imbalances in homeostasis?
Hypothalamus
What does the lateral hypothalamus do? (hungry lats)
Hunger center; detects when body needs food/fluids
What does the ventromedial hypothalamus do?
Satiety center; provides signals to stop eating
What does the anterior hypothalamus do?
Controls sexual behavior, regulates sleep and body temperature
What is the posterior pituitary comprised of and what does it release?
Comprised of axonal projections from the hypothalamus and releases the hypothalamic horomones, antidiuretic hormone (ADH, aka vasopressin) and oxytocin
What does the pineal gland do and what does it secrete?
Secretes melatonin to regulate circadian rhythm and receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight
What do the basal ganglia do? Where do they relay from and to?
Coordinates muscle movement as they receive info from the cortex and relay this info (via the extrapyramidal motor system) to the brain and the spinal cord
What part of the brain is the extrapyramidal system part of?
Basal ganglia
What does the extrapyramidal system do?
Gathers information about body position and carries this info to the CNS, but does not function directly through motor neurons.
They make our movements smooth and our posture steady
What is a common chronic illness associated with the basal ganglia?
Parkinson’s disease
What are the 4 main components of the limbic system? (ASHA)
Amygdala
Septal nuclei
Hippocampus
Anterior cingulate cortex
What does the sePtal nuclei contain?
One of the primary pleasure centers in the brain (P)
What does the amygdala do?
Defensive and aggressive behaviors, including fear and rage
Myg = MIG = jet fighter plane
What does the hippocampus do?
Consolidates information to form long-term memories and redistributes remote memories to the cerebral cortex
The hippocampus communicates with other portions of the limbic system through a long projection called the ____________.
Fornix
What type of amnesia is associated with not being able to establish new long-term memories?
Anterograde amnesia
What type of amnesia is associated with losing memories that transpired before brain injury?
Retrograde amnesia
What does the anterior cingulate cortex do? What is it connected to?
It is connected to the frontal and parietal lobes, thus is important to higher order cognitive processes, e.g. regulation of impulse control and decision-making
What is the outer surface of the brain called? What is another name for it?
Cerebral cortex
aka neocortex
What are the bumps and folds of the cerebral cortex called?
Gyri and sulci, respectively
What are the 2 halves of the cerebral cortex called?
Cerebral hemispheres
What are the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex called?
Frontal
Parietal
Occipital
Temporal
F-POT
What are the 2 main regions of the frontal lobe?
Prefrontal cortex
Motor cortex
What is the role of the prefrontal cortex?
Supervises and directs the operations of other brain regions
Also supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning
ex. communicates w/ reticular formation to regulate attention/alertness
with memory: it does not story memories, but reminds people to remember something
What happens if someone’s prefontal cortex is damaged?
Impulsive and less in control, cry more, angry outbursts
What is an association area?
An area that integrates input from diverse regions of the brain
e.g. prefrontal cortex
What is a projection area?
Perform more rudimentary perceptual and motor tasks
What is an example of a projection area?
Primary motor cortex on the precentral gyrus (in front of central sulcus) - it initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles
Which part of the frontal lobe is important for speech production? (talk to me bro)
Broca’s area - usually only found in the left hemisphere (the dominant hemi.)
Which cortex is located on the parietal lobe?
Somatosensory cortex
Which gyrus is the somatosensory cortex located on?
Postcentral gyrus
Which cortex is located in the occiptal lobes?
Visual cortex
aka striate cortex
Which cortex is located in the occiptal lobes?
Visual cortex
aka striate cortex
What cortex is located in the temporal lobes?
Auditory cortex
Which part of the temporal lobe is important for language reception and comprehension?
Wernicke’s area
Which part of the brain associated with memory formation is located deep inside the temporal lobe?
Hippocampus
How do we describe it when one side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body?
Contralateral
How do we describe it when the cerebral hemispheres communicate with the same side of the body?
Ipsilateral
What is the dominant hemisphere associated with? Which side is usually dominant?
The one more heavily stimulated during language reception and production; manages details, very analytic (logic, math, langauge)
Left
What is the nondominant hemisphere associated with? Which side is it usually?
Intuition, creativity, music cognition, spatial processing – processes pieces of a stimulus and assembles them
A ________________ is a chemical used by neurons to send signals to other neurons
Neurotransmitter
A drug that mimics the action of some neurotransmitter is called an _________.
Agonist
Drugs can also act by blocking the action of neurotransmitters, and such drugs are called _____________.
Antagonists
Is acetylcholine found in the CNS, PNS, or both?
Both
What is acetylcholine used for in the PNS?
Used by the parasympathetic nervous system and a small portion of the sympathetic nervous system to transmit nerve impulses to muscles
What is acetylcholine used for in the CNS?
Linked to attention and arousal
What are the 3 catecholamines? What do they play an important role in?
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
Dopamine
important for emotions
What is another name for epinephrine?
Adrenaline
What is another name for norepinephrine?
Noradrenaline
What are epinephrine and norepinephrine involved in?
Controlling alertness and wakefulness by promoting the fight-or-flight response
What mental disorder are low levels of norepinephrine associated with? High levels?
Depression
Anxiety and mania
What is dopamine important for?
Movement and posture
Which part of the brain has high concentrations of dopamine?
Basal ganglia - helps smooth movements and maintain postural stability
What common type of mental disorder is caused by imbalances in dopamine transmission? (usually excess or oversensitivity to this NT)
Schizophrenia
What movement disorder is associated with a loss of dopaminergic neurons? In what part of the brain?
Parkinson’s disease; basal ganglia
Which neurotransmitters are monoamines?
The catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine)
Serotonin
What role does serotonin play?
Regulates mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming
Plays role in depression and mania
What mental disorder are low levels of norepinephrine associated with? High levels?
Depression
Anxiety and mania
What mental disorder are low levels of serotonin associated with? High levels?
High = mania
Low = depression
What does GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) produce and what role does it play?
Produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
Stabilizes neural activity in the brain
How does GABA work? Does it hyperpolarize or hypopolarize?
Causes hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane
What does glycine do and where does it act?
Inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNS (increases Cl- influx into the neuron)
Hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane, like GABA.
What does glutamate do?
Excitatory neurotransmitters in the CNS (unlike glycine)
Are neuropeptides quickers or slower than neurotransmitter?
Slower
Why are neuropeptides slower than neurotransmitters?
They involve a more complicated chain of events in the postsynaptic cell than NTs
Do neuropeptides have a longer or shorter effect on postsynaptic cell?
Longer
What are the neuropeptides that are natural painkillers produced in the brain?
Endorphins
Which brain structure links the endocrine and nervous systems?
Hypothalamus
What gland does the hypothalamus regulate the hormonal function of?
Pituitary gland
How does the hypothalamus regulate the pituitary gland?
Endocrine release of hormones into the hypophyseal portal system (directly connects the 2 organs)
Where is the pituitary gland located and what are the 2 parts?
Base of the brain; anterior and posterior
What does the anterior pituitary do?
Releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands elsewhere in the body
Controlled by hypothalamus!!!
What happens when an endocrine gland is activated by the pituitary?
It releases its own characteristic hormone
Where are the adrenal glands alocated and what are its 2 parts?
On top of the kidneys; adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex
What neurotransmitters does the adrenal medulla release, and part of which NS?
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
Sympathetic NS
Give 3 examples
What type of hormones does the adrenal cortex?
Corticosteroids, e.g. cortisol (stress), testosterone and estrogen (sex hormones)
What are the sex glands?
Gonads - testes and ovaries
What is a critical period?
A specific period in development where children are particularly susceptible to environmental factors
What marks the start of the development of the nervous system? At what point during gestation does this occur?
Neurulation; 3-4 weeks
What occurs during neurulation?
The ectoderm overlying the notochord furrows to form a neural groove surrounded by 2 neural folds
What are the cells at the leading edge of the neural fold called?
Neural crest
What are some tissues that the neural crest will later comprise?
Dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes, calcitonin-producing cells of the thyroid
When the neural folds close, what forms? What does this eventually become?
Neural tube; central nervous system
What are the 2 plates of the neural tube? What do they differentiate into?
Alar plate = sensory neurons
Basal plate = motor neurons
A ________ is a behavior that occurs in response to a given stimulus without higher cognitive input.
reflex
What is the rooting reflex?
Turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek
What is the Moro reflex? When does it disappear?
Infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting their arms and crying; disappears after 4 months
What is the Babinski reflex?
Toes spread automatically when sole of foot is stimulated
What is the grasping reflex?
When infants close their fingers around an object placed in the hand
When do stranger and separation anxiety develop?
7 months and 1 year, respectively
What is parallel play and when does it start?
Children play alongside each other without influencing each other’s behavior
When do children have an awareness of their assigned gender?
3 years old
When does conformity and romatnic feelings begin to develop?
Age 5
