Chapter 6 Flashcards
Learning
An enduring change in behavior resulting from prior experience
Associative learning
A form of learning that involves making connections between stimuli and behavioral responses
Ex. Classical and operant conditioning
Non associative learning
A form of learning that involves a change in the magnitude of an elicited response with repetition of the eliciting stimulus
Ex. Habituation and sensitization
Habituation
A form of non associative learning by which an organism becomes less responsive to a repeated stimulus
Sensitization
A form of non associative learning by which an organism becomes more sensitive, or responsive, to a repeated stimulus
Dishabituation
The recovery of a response that has undergone habituation, typically as a result of the presentation of a novel stimulus.
Classical conditioning
A passive form of learning by which an association is made between a reflex-eliciting stimulus (e.g., a shock) and other stimuli (e.g., a sound)
Ex. Pavlov’s dogs
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
A stimulus that produces a reflexive response without prior learning
Food
Unconditioned response (UR)
The response that is automatically generated by the unconditioned stimulus
Salivating at the presentation of food
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
A stimulus that has no prior positive or negative association but comes to elicit a response after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus
The bell in the experiment
Conditioned response (CR)
A response that occurs in the presence of the conditioned stimulus after an association between the unconditioned and conditioned stimulus is learned
Salivating at the sound of the bell
Acquisition
The initial learning of an association between the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli during classical conditioning.
The pairing of the food and the bell
Generalization
The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the CS, so that learning is not tied too narrowly to specific stimuli.
Pavlov’s dogs may salivate to a sound different to the original CS (the bell).
Discrimination
When we learn to respond to a particular stimulus but not to others, thus preventing over generalizations.
Being able to distinguish a car horn to a trombone while driving.
Extinction
An active learning process whereby the CR is weakened in response to the CS if it is frequently presented in the absence of the US.
When Pavlov continued to ring the bell but with no food, the dogs eventually stopped salivating.
Spontaneous recovery
When an extinct behavior reappears after a delay
The next morning, when Pavlov rang the bell again, the dogs salivated.
Blocking
A classical conditioning phenomenon whereby a prior association with a conditioned stimulus prevents learning of an association with another stimulus because the second one adds no further predictive value.
Preparedness
The species-specific biological predisposition to learn some associations more quickly than other associations.
Conditioned taste aversion
A classically conditioned response where individuals are more likely to associate nausea with food than with other environmental stimuli.
Operant conditioning
A mechanism by which our behavior acts as an instrument or tool to change the environment and, as a result, voluntary behaviors are modified.
Ex. Skinner box
Law of effect
The idea that behavior is a function of its consequences-actions that are followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, and behaviors that are followed by negative outcomes are weakened.
Reinforcement
A consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated.
Punishment
A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated.
Primary reinforcers
A consequence that is innately pleasurable and/or satisfies some biological need
Secondary reinforcers
A learned pleasure that acquires value through experience because of its association with primary reinforcers.
Positive reinforcement
The presentation of a positive stimulus, leading to an increase in the frequency of a behavior
Praise, treats, any desired reward
Negative reinforcement
The removal of a negative stimulus, leading to an increase in the frequency of behavior
Removing someone from a noisy room, taking pain medication for a headache, eating to remove the feeling of hunger.
Positive punishment
The presentation of a negative stimulus, leading to a decrease in the frequency of behavior
Scolding, getting grounded, etc
Negative punishment
The removal of a positive stimulus, leading to a decrease in the frequency of a behavior
Phone taken away, not allowed to participate in a game, etc.
Premack principle
The idea that activities individuals frequently engage in can be used to reinforce activities that that are less inclined to do.
Shaping
The process by which random behaviors are gradually changed into a desired target behavior.
Instinctive drift
An animal’s reversion to evolutionarily derived instinctive behaviors instead of demonstrating newly learned responses
Continuous reinforcement schedule
A reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is rewarded every time it is performed
Partial reinforcement schedules
A reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is rewarded only some of the time.
Fixed-ratio schedule
A reinforcement schedule in which a specific number of behaviors are required before a reward is given
You get a free chipotle burrito when you buy 10
Variable-ratio schedule
A reinforcement schedule in which an average number of behaviors are required before a reward is given
Selling girl scout coookies
Fixed interval schedule
A reinforcement schedule based on a fixed amount of time before a reward is given.
Receiving paychecks every two weeks
Variable-interval schedule
A reinforcement schedule based on an amount of time between rewards that varies around a constant average
Waiting for the elevator
Superstitious conditioning
A form of operant conditioning in which a behavior is learned because it was coincidentally reinforced, but has no actual relationship with reinforcement
Latent learning
Learning that occurs without either incentive or any clear motivation to learn
Insight learning
A form of learning that occurs without trial and error and thus without clear reinforcement
Observational learning
A form of learning in which a person observes and imitates a behavior from a model
Imitation
The purposeful copying of a goal-directed behavior
Social learning theory
A theory of how people’s cognitions, behaviors, and dispositions are shaped by observing and imitating the actions of others
Mirror neurons
Neurons that are active both when performing an action and when the same actions are observed in others.
Cultural transmission
The transfer of information from one generation to another that is maintained not by genetics, but by teaching and learning.
Vertical transmission
The transmission of skills from parent to offspring
Horizontal Transmission
The transmission of skills between peers.
Diffusion Chain
A process in which individuals learn a behavior by observing a model and then serve as models from who other individuals can learn
Eric kandel
Won Nobel prize for habituation/sensitization
Ivan pavlov
Classical conditioning, dogs salivating at the sound of a bell
B.F Skinner
Operant conditioning: Skinner box, rats pressing levers to get food
Thorndike
Law of effect, proposed that a punishment would weaken behavior and a reinforcement would increase behavior
Albert Bandura
Observational learning: bobo dolls, woman hit bobo doll and child mimicked the behavior
Garcia
Animals biased learning machines: forge meaningful links between stimuli most relevant to their environment
Limitations to classical perspectives on learning
- Organisms are predisposed to pick up on certain pairings instead of others
- Some learning occurs without reinforcement and punishment (non-associative learning)
- Different animals are biologically programmed to pick up on pairings faster
Neutral stimulus
Event or action that produces no response
Second order conditioning
Adding a second CS to elicit a (weaker) response
What type of punishment does not yield lasting results?
Physical punishment
What types of punishments do work?
- Firm “No’s”
- Time outs
- Removal of privileges
- Ignore minor bad behavior
Why do firm No’s work and physical punishment doesn’t?
Physical punishment does not clearly indicate what was wrong about the behavior, while a clear firm “No” provides a clear command.
What can you do wrong with a time out or removing privileges?
You need to make it a short amount of time. A good rule is 1 minute for every year of life.
How does ignoring bad behavior work?
It does not provide any attention and therefore does not reinforce the behavior.
How do you make a punishment effective?
You provide a punishment immediately following the maladaptive behavior and you pair the punishment with reinforcement for good behavior
Edward Chase Tolman
Experimented with learning without reinforcement by putting the rats in the maze and giving reinforcement at different times. The rats that did not get reinforced until day 8 and the “lazy” rats performed almost as well as the rats that received continuous reinforcement.
Coyne et. Al
Followed 240 preschoolers for a year and observed their behavior following superhero exposure.
