Chapter 6 Flashcards
1
Q
organic chemistry
A
- the study of compounds that contain carbon
- some living organisms most not
- involves fossil fuels, dyes, drugs, paper, ink, paints, plastics, gasoline, rubber tires, food, and clothing
2
Q
inorganic chemistry
A
all chemical reactions that don’t include carbon
3
Q
biochemistry
A
- chemistry of living cells; chemistry of life
- involves study of biomolecules in a living organism
4
Q
carbon bonds
A
- carbon atoms have valence of 4 meaning they can and to 2 other atoms
- when atoms of other elements attach to available carbon bonds compounds are formed
5
Q
three ways that carbon atoms can bond to each other
A
- single bond
- double bond
- triple bond
6
Q
covalent bond
A
- a pair of electrons is shared
7
Q
series of carbon atoms bonded together
A
a chain
8
Q
hydrocarbons
A
- when only hydrogen atoms are bonded to available carbon bonds
- organic molecule that contains only carbon and hydrogen
- ex: methane, ethylene, acetylene
9
Q
cyclic compounds
A
- when carbon atoms link to other carbon atoms to close a chain and form rings
- ex: benzene has 6 carbons and 6 hydrogens
10
Q
macromolecules
A
- large molecules
- biomolecules in living organisms
- include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
- other ex: vitamins, enzymes, hormones, and ATP
11
Q
how to humans obtain nutrients
A
- from foods they eat which are absorbed and carried to every cell in body where they are broken down and rearranged
- microorganisms also absorb essential nutrients into cell by various means
- nutrients are then used as metabolic reactions as source of energy and building blocks for enzymes, structural macromolecules, and genetic materials
12
Q
carbohydrates
A
- biomolecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and O2 (1:2:1 ratio)
- ex: glucose, fructose, sucrose, lactose, maltose, starch, cellulose, and glycogen
13
Q
categories of carbohydrates
A
- monosaccharides
- disaccharides
- polysaccharides
14
Q
monosaccharides
A
- smallest and simplest
- one ring in structure
- contain 2-9 carbon atoms mostly 5-6
15
Q
most important monosaccharide
A
- glucose (C6H12O6)
- main source of energy for body cells
- may occur as chain in alpha or beta ring
- carried in blood to cells where it is oxidized to produce ATP
16
Q
monosaccharide carbon atom number
A
- 3 carbon = triose
- 4 carbon = tetrose
- 5 carbon = pentose
- 6 carbon = hexose
- 7 carbon = heptose
17
Q
3 forms of glucose configurations
A
- alpha glucose
- straight chain form
- beta glucose
18
Q
disaccharides
A
- double-ringed sugars the result from the combination of 2 monosaccharides
- sucrose, lactose, maltose
19
Q
dehydration synthesis reaction
A
- combination of 2 monosaccharides and removal of water molecules
20
Q
hydrolysis reaction
A
- disaccharide reaction with water which causes them to break down into 2 monosaccharides
21
Q
peptidoglycan
A
- found in cell wall of all members of the domain bacteria
- a repeating disaccharide attached by proteins to form a lattice that surrounds and protects bacterial cell
22
Q
carbohydrates composed of * monosaccharides
A
- 3 = trisaccharides
- 4 = tetrasaccharides
- 5 = pentasaccharides
- polysaccharides
23
Q
polysaccharides
A
- carbohydrates that are composed of many monosaccharides
- most contain hundreds
- examples of polymers which are molecules that consist of many similar subunits
24
Q
2 main functions of polysaccharides
A
- store of energy (glycogen in animal cells)
- provide tough molecule for structural support and protection (bacterial capsules)
25
polysaccharides broken down
- in the presence of proper enzyme or acids polysaccharides may be hydrolyzed or broken down into disaccharides and then into monosaccharides
26
polysaccharides and bacterial cells
- some bacteria produce polysaccharide capsules for protection from phagocytes
- plant and algal cells have cellulose, a polysaccharides, cells walls for support
- some protozoa, fungi, and bacteria have enzymes that can break down cellulose
27
combination of polysaccharides with other chemical groups
- like amines, lipids, and amino acids
- form complex macromolecules
- chitin which is main component of outer shell for insects and crabs is found in cell wall of fungi
28
lipids
- important class of biomolecules
- most insoluble in water but soluble in fat solvents (ether, chloroform, benzene)
- essential constituents of most living cells
29
classification of lipids
- waxes
- fats and oils
- phospholipids
- glycolipids
- steroids
- prostaglandins and leukotrienes
30
fatty acids
- building blocks of lipids
| - long chain carboxylic acids that are insoluble in water
31
saturated fatty acids
- contain one single bond between carbon atoms
| - solid at room temperature
32
monounsaturated fatty acids
- have one double bond in carbon chain
| - butter, olives, peanuts
33
polyunsaturated fatty acids
- have two or more double bonds
| - soybeans, safflowers, corn
34
essential fatty acids
- cannot be synthesized in human body
| - must be provided by diet
35
mycobacterium tuberculosis and waxes
- cell wall contains waxes
- waxes protect M. TB from digestion following phagocytosis by white blood cells
- waxes make M. TB difficult to stain and destain which is why it is acid-fast
36
glycerophospholipids
- aka phosphoglycerides
- most abundant lipids in cell membranes
- cell membrane is lipid bilayer consisting of 2 rows of phospholipids arranged tail to tail
- lecithins and cephalins found in brain and nerve tissues and egg yolk
37
gram negative cell wall
- contains lipoproteins and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
| - LPS consists of a lipid and a polysaccharide portion
38
gram positive cell wall
- do not contain LPS
39
sphingolipids
- phospholipids that contain sphingosine rather than glycerol
- found in brain and nerve tissue
40
prostaglandins and leukotrienes
- derived from a fatty acid called arachidonic acid
- wide variety of effects on body such as BP or hormones
- leukotrienes can produce long lasting muscle contractions
41
proteins
- most essential chemical in all living cells "substance of life"
- some are structural components of membranes, cells, and tissues
- some are enzyme and hormones
- all are polymers of amino acids
- all contain carbon, hydrogen, O2, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur
42
amino acids
- contain carbon, hydrogen, O2, nitrogen and sometimes sulfur
- humans can synthesize some but not others
- thousands of different proteins in human body composed of wide variety of amino acids in various quantities and arrangements
43
protein structure
- amino acids linked together to form proteins via covalent bonds which are peptide bonds
44
covalent vs peptide bonds
- covalent are bonds between different molecules
| - peptide are bonds between amino acids
45
types of peptide bonds
- dipeptides
- tripeptides
- polypeptides
46
secondary protein structure
- twisting/coiling of chain of amino acids
| - alpha helix or beta sheet
47
tertiary protein structure
- folding/entwining of chain
48
quaternary protein structure
- bonding of 2 or more polypeptide chains
49
formation of a dipeptide
amino acid 1 + amino acid 2 —> dipeptide
50
enzymes
- all enzymes are proteins
- specialized protein molecules produced by living cells
- biological catalysts for metabolic reactions
- almost every cell chemical reaction requires an enzyme
51
catalyst
- an agent that speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed in the reaction
52
apoenzymes
- only function when linked with a nonprotein cofactor (Ca, Fe, Mg, Cu) or a coenzyme
- some require vitamin-type compounds called coenzymes (vitamin C, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD))
53
holoenzyme
- combination of apoenzyme plus a cofactor
| - "whole enzyme"
54
how to name enzymes
- named by adding "-ase" to the word
| - lysosome and hemolysis are example not ending in ase
55
enzyme substrate
the specific molecule on which an enzyme acts
56
nucleic acid functions
- DNA and RNA form 4th major biomolecule group of living cells
- critical to proper cell function
- DNA is hereditary molecule which contains genes and genetic codes
- info in DNA must flow to rest of cell for function which is accomplished by RNA
- RNA molecules convert genetic codes into proteins and other gene products
57
nucleic acid structure
- contain carbon, hydrogen, O2, nitrogen, and phosphorus
- building blocks of nucleic acid polymers, DNA, and RNA are nucleotides
- nucleotides are more complex monomers than amino acids
58
DNA and RNA pentose
- DNA has deoxyribose as its pentose
| - RNA has ribose as its pentose
59
nucleotide structure
- contains a nitrogenous base, a five carbon sugar, and a phosphate group
60
3 types of RNA
- messenger RNA (mRNA)
- ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- transfer RNA (tRNA)
61
5 nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids
- adenine (A)
- guanine (G)
- cytosine (C)
- thymine (T) DNA only
- uracil (U) RNA only
62
purines and pyrimidines
- A and G are purines
| - T, C, and U are pyrimidines
63
DNA structure
- bonding forces result in double stranded helix shape
| - for double stranded DNA molecule to form the two separate strands must bond together
64
DNA bonds
- A always with T via 2 hydrogen bonds
- G always with C via 3 hydrogen bonds
- A-T and G-C are known as base pairs
- the hydrogen bonds are weak which allows us to read DNA/genes
- strength within DNA strand itself is strong
65
DNA replication
- when a cell is preparing to divide the DNA molecules in the chromosome duplicate resulting in same genetic info passed to both daughter cells
- occurs by separation of the 2 DNA strands and building complementary strands
- must occur for cell to divide
- original DNA splits and RNA form new bonds
66
most important enzyme required for DNA replication
- DNA polymerase
- aka DNA-dependent DNA polymerase
- most responsible
67
gene expression
- a gene is a particular segment of a DNA molecule or chromosome
- a gene contains a blueprint that will enable a cell to make a gene products
- the sequence of the 4 nitrogenous bases forms the instructions for a particular gene product
- most genes code for proteins but sometimes rRNA or tRNA
- some genes code for more than one gene product, may need different parts of DNA for one gene product
68
The Central Dogma
- explains flow of genetic info within a cell
- DNA —> mRNA—> protein
- aka "one gene one protein hypothesis"
- one gene of a DNA molecule is used to make one molecule of mRNA by transcription
- genetic info in mRNA is then used to make one or more proteins by translation
- have gene responsible for every protein in body
69
gene expression sequence
DNA —> transcription —> mRNA —> translation —> proteins
70
genes on a chromosome
- all genes on a chromosome are not being expressed any given time
- it is not logical to have an enzyme when not needed
71
inducible genes
- genes that are only expressed when the gene products are needed
72
constitutive genes
- genes that are expressed at all times
73
transcription
- the process by which a genetic code within DNA molecule is transcribed to produce and mRNA molecule
- primary enzyme involved in RNA polymerase
74
transcription steps
- RNA moves through and reads DNA
- nitrogenous bases are added to RNA strand corresponding to DNA strand
- ribonucleotides are added to 3' end with help from RNA polymerase
75
transcription and translation in eukaryotes
- occurs within nucleus
- newly formed mRNA travels out through pores of nuclear membrane into cytoplasm
- proteins are produced in cytoplasm by translation
- can't happen simultaneously
76
transcription and translation in prokaryotes
- transcription occurs in cytoplasm
- ribosomes attach to mRNA as they are being transcribed at DNA
- transcription and translation can happen simultaneously
- circular DNA
77
translation
- process of translating message carried by mRNA then particular tRNAs read it and carry amino acids to be bound together in proper sequence to make a protein
78
codon
- base sequence of mRNA molecule read in groups of 3
79
anticodon
- complementary 3 base sequence to codon on tRNA molecule that reads mRNA molecule
80
translation steps
- ribosome binds to mRNA
- tRNA reads mRNA and has complementary bases that it binds to and creates amino acids which form to make a polypeptide chain (primary protein structure)
- sequence of 3 base pairs codes for specific amino acid
81
primary protein structure
linear sequence of amino acids
