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Bio 5A Lecture > Chapter 5: The Structure And Function Of Large Biological Molecules > Flashcards

Chapter 5: The Structure And Function Of Large Biological Molecules Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 4 major classes the molecules can be put in?

A

Carbohydrates-Lipids-Proteins-Nucleic Acids. CLPA

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2
Q

Define Macromolecules

A

A giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a dehydration reaction. Polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids are macromolecules.

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3
Q

What does dehydrogenase do in the body?

A

It breaks down alcohol.

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4
Q

Macromolecules are _____ built from _____.

A

Polymers-Monomers

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5
Q

Define Polymer

A

A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together by covalent bonds.

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6
Q

Define Monomers

A

The subunit that serves as the building block for polymers.

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7
Q

Define Enzymes

A

A macromolecule serving as a catalyst; a chemical agent that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction. Most enzymes are proteins.

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8
Q

Define Dehydration Reaction

A

A chemical reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to one another with the removal of a water molecule. DJ (Dehydration-Joined)

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9
Q

When a bond forms between two monomers, what exactly happens?

A

One monomer provides a hydroxyl group (-OH), while the other provides a hydrogen (-H).

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10
Q

How are polymers disassembled to monomers?

A

Through Hydrolysis

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11
Q

Define Hydrolysis

A

A chemical reaction that breaks bonds between two molecules by the addition of water; functions in the disassembly of polymers. HB (Hydrolysis-Breaking)

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12
Q

What is an example of hydrolysis in our bodies?

A

Digestion

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13
Q

_____ serve as fuel and building material.

A

Carbohydrates

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14
Q

Define Carbohydrates

A

A sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharides) or polymers (polysaccharides).

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15
Q

Define Monosaccharides

A

The simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also called simple sugars, monosaccharides have molecules formulas that are generally some multiple of CH2O.

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16
Q

What is the most common monosaccharide?

A

Glucose (C6H12O6)

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17
Q

How are ketoses and aldoses distinguished structurally?

A

It depends on the location of the carbonyl group.

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18
Q

What is the range for the size of carbon rings in sugars?

A

3-7.

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19
Q

What is an asymmetric carbon?

A

A carbon that is bonded to 4 different groups.

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20
Q

For Aldehyde groups, where are the carbonyl groups located?

A

At the end of the carbon skeleton. AE

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21
Q

For ketones, where are the carbonyl groups located?

A

Within the carbon skeleton. KW

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22
Q

What is the formula for Trioses and what are two examples?

A

C3H6O3; Glyceraldehyde- Dihydroxyacetone

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23
Q

What is the formula for Pentoses and what are two examples?

A

C5H10O5; Ribose-Ribulose

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24
Q

What is the formula for Hexoses and what are two examples?

A

C6H12O6; glucose, galactose, fructose

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25
Q

In ring structures, what does each unlabeled corner represent?

A

Carbon

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26
Q

What does the thicker edge of the ring indicate?

A

That you’re looking at the ring edge-on. The components attached to the ring lie above or below the plane of the ring.

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27
Q

Define Disaccharide

A

A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage formed by a dehydration reaction.

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28
Q

Define Glycosidic Linkage

A

A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.

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29
Q

______ is a disaccharide formed by the linking of two molecules of glucose.

A

Maltose

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30
Q

What is the most prevalent disaccharide?

A

Sucrose

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31
Q

What must happen to disaccharides for them to be used as energy in organisms?

A

They must be broken down to monosaccharides.

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32
Q

Lactose intolerance is a common condition in humans who lack _____, the enzyme that breaks down lactose.

A

Lactase

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33
Q

Define Polysaccharides

A

A polymer of many monosaccharides, formed by dehydration reactions.

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34
Q

What are some functions of polysaccharides?

A

Serve as storage material- Building material for structures that protect the cell or the whole organism. SP

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35
Q

Define Starch

A

A storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting entirely of glucose monomers joined by glycosidic linkages.

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36
Q

What is the simplest form of starch called?

A

Amylose

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37
Q

Define Glycogen

A

An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.

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38
Q

Define Cellulose

A

A structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by BETA glycosidic linkages.

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39
Q

What is the most abundant organic compound on earth?

A

Cellulose

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40
Q

What are the ways that the hydroxyl group can be arranged in glucose rings?

A

The hydroxyl group attached to the number 1 carbon is positioned either below or above the plane of the ring: these two ring forms are called alpha and beta. If it’s below, it’s alpha; if it’s above, it’s beta. ABBA

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41
Q

In plant cells, what are parallel cellulose molecules held together by hydrogen bonds called?

A

Microfibrils

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42
Q

What is something that cellulose does in our body?

A

On its way to being passed through the system through feces, the cellulose abrades the wall of the digestive tract and stimulates the lining to secrete mucus, which aids in the smooth passage of food through the tract.

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43
Q

How is cellulose referred to in food packages?

A

Insoluble Fiber

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44
Q

Define Lipids

A

Any of a group of large biological molecules, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that mix poorly, if at all, with water. FPS

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45
Q

What is one important shared trait between lipids?

A

That they mix poorly, if at all, with water.

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46
Q

What do lipids mostly consist of chemically?

A

Hydrocarbons

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47
Q

Define Fat

A

A lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a triacylglycerol or triglyceride.

48
Q

What is glycerol?

A

An alcohol; each of its three carbons bear a hydroxyl group.

49
Q

Define Fatty Acid

A

A carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain. Fatty acids vary in length and in the number and location of double bonds; three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule form a fat molecule, also called a triacylglycerol or triglyceride.

50
Q

What is an ester linkage?

A

A bond formed by the dehydration reaction between a hydroxyl group and a carboxyl group. EHC

51
Q

Define Triacylglycerol

A

A lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a fat or triglyceride.

52
Q

Define Saturated Fatty Acid

A

A fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected.

53
Q

Define Unsaturated Fatty Acid

A

A fatty acid that has one or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.

54
Q

Nearly every double bond in naturally occurring fatty acid is a _____ double bond.

A

Cis

55
Q

What are some difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?

A

For saturated fats, at room temperature, the molecules are packed together closely, forming a solid.

For unsaturated fats, the molecules cannot pack together closely enough to solidify because of the kinks in some of their fatty acid hydrocarbon chains.

56
Q

What leads to the development of atherosclerosis?

A

A diet rich in saturated fat.

57
Q

What happens in the condition of atherosclerosis?

A

Deposits called plaques develop within the walls of blood vessels, causing inward bulges that impede blood flow and reduce the resilience of the vessels.

58
Q

Define Trans Fats

A

An unsaturated fat, formed artificially during hydrogenation of oils, containing one or more trans double bonds. TU

59
Q

Define Phospholipid

A

A lipid made up of glycerol joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate group. The hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids act as non polar, hydrophobic tails, while the rest of the molecule acts as a polar, hydrophilic head. Phospholipids form bilayers that function as biological membranes.

60
Q

How are phospholipids arranged in a bilayer?

A

The hydrophilic heads are facing outwards, while the hydrophobic tails are facing inwards.

61
Q

Define Steroids

A

A type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings with various chemical groups attached.

62
Q

Define Cholesterol

A

A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids, such as many hormones. CMH (Membrane-Hormones)

63
Q

Define Catalyst

A

A chemical agent that selectively increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.

64
Q

Proteins are constructed from a set of _____ amino acids.

A

20

65
Q

What is the bond between amino acids called?

A

Peptide Bond

66
Q

Define Polypeptide

A

A polymer of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.

67
Q

Define Protein

A

A biologically functional molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific three dimensional structure.

68
Q

Define Amino Acid

A

An organic molecule possessing both a carboxyl and an amino group. Amino acids serve as the monomers of polypeptides. ACA

69
Q

What are the four different partners of amino acids?

A

Amino Group-H- Carboxyl-R (variable) ACRH

70
Q

What are the different types of proteins?

A

Enzymatic-Storage-Hormonal-Contractile-Defensive-Transport-Receptor-Structural. ESHC-DTRS

71
Q

Describe everything about Enzymatic Proteins

A

Function: selective acceleration of chemical reactions
Example: Digestive Enzymes. ED

72
Q

Explain everything about Storage Proteins

A

Function: Storage of amino acids.
Examples: Casein. SC

73
Q

Explain everything about Hormonal Proteins

A

Function: coordination of an organism’s activities.

Example: insulin

74
Q

Explain everything about contractile and motor proteins.

A

Function: Movement

Example: Undulations of the Cilia and Flagella

75
Q

Explain everything about Defensive Proteins

A

Function: Protection against disease.

Example: Antibodies inactivate and help destroy viruses and bacteria.

76
Q

Explain everything about Transport Proteins

A

Function: Transport of substances.

Example: Hemoglobin, the iron-containing protein of vertebrate blood.

77
Q

Explain everything about Receptor Proteins

A

Function: Response of cell to chemical stimuli

Example: Receptors built into the membrane of a nerve cell.

78
Q

Explain everything about structural proteins.

A

Function: Support

Example: Keratin

79
Q

Acidic amino acids have side chains that are generally _____in charge due to the presence of a carboxyl group.

A

Negative

80
Q

Define Peptide Bond

A

The covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group of another, formed by a dehydration reaction.

81
Q

The _____ sequence of each polypeptide determines what three-dimensional structure the protein will have under normal cellular conditions.

A

Amino Acid

82
Q

What are the superimposed structures that proteins have?

A

Primary-Secondary-Tertiary-Quaternary. PSTQ (quaternary arises when a protein consist of two or more polypeptide chains.

83
Q

Define Primary Structure

A

The level of protein structure referring to the specific linear sequence of amino acids.

84
Q

Define Secondary Structure

A

Regions of repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen being between constituents of the backbone (not the side chains).

85
Q

Define Alpha Helix

A

A coiled region constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific pattern of hydrogen bonding between atoms of the polypeptide backbone (not the side chains).

86
Q

Define Beta Pleated Sheet

A

One form of the secondary structure of proteins in which the polypeptide chain folds back and forth. Two regions of the chain lie parallel to each other and are held together by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbone (not the side chains).

87
Q

Define Tertiary Structure

A

The overall shape of a protein molecule due to interactions of amino acid side chains, including hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges. TS-HIHD

88
Q

Define Hydrophobic Interaction

A

A type of weak chemical interaction caused when molecules that do not mix with water coalesce to exclude water.

89
Q

Define Disulfide Bridges

A

A strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer.

90
Q

Define Quaternary Structure

A

The particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide.

91
Q

What is the function of normal hemoglobin?

A

Normal hemoglobin proteins do not associated with one another; each carries oxygen.

92
Q

What is the function of Sickle-Cell hemoglobin?

A

Hydrophobic interactions between sickle-cell hemoglobin proteins lead to their aggregation into a fiber; capacity to carry oxygen is greatly reduced.

93
Q

Define Sickle-Cell Disease

A

A recessively inherited human blood disorder in which a single nucleotide change in the alpha-globin gene causes hemoglobin to aggregate, changing red blood cell shape and causing multiple symptoms in afflicted individuals.

94
Q

Define Denaturation

A

In proteins, a process in which a protein loses its native shape due to the disruption of weak chemical bonds and interactions, thereby becoming biologically inactive; in DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix. Denaturation occurs under extreme (non cellular) conditions of pH, salt concentration, or temperature. PST

95
Q

Define X-Ray Crystallography

A

A technique used to study the three-dimensional structure of molecules. It depends on the diffraction of an X-ray beam by the individual atoms of a crystallized molecule.

96
Q

Nucleic acids _____, _____, and help _____ hereditary information.

A

Store-Transmit-Express. STE

97
Q

Define Gene

A

A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).

98
Q

Define Nucleic Acids

A

A polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities. The two types are DNA and RNA.

99
Q

Define Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

A

A nucleic acid molecule, usually a double-stranded helix, in which each polynucleotide strand consists of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine; capable of being replicated and determining the inherited structure of a cell’s proteins. ATGC

100
Q

Define Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

A

A type of nucleic acid consisting of a polynucleotide made up of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil; usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis, un gene regulation, and as the genome of some viruses. AGCU

101
Q

Define Gene Expression

A

The process by which information encoded in DNA directs the synthesis of proteins or, in some cases, RNAs that are not translated into proteins and instead function as RNAs.

102
Q

Define Polynucleotides

A

A polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers in a chain. The nucleotide can be those of DNA or RNA.

103
Q

Define Nucleotides

A

The building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and one to three phosphate groups.

104
Q

What are the two families of nitrogenous bases called?

A

Pyrimidine-Purine

105
Q

Define Pyrimidine

A

One of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a six-member end ring. Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil are pyrimidines. Pie-6-CTU

106
Q

Define Purines

A

One of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a six-member end ring fused to a five-member end ring. Adenine and Guanine are purines. AG

107
Q

_____ is only found in DNA and _____ only in RNA.

A

Thymine-Uracil

108
Q

Define Deoxyribose

A

The sugar component of DNA nucleotides, having one fewer hydroxyl groups than ribose, the sugar component of RNA nucleotides.

109
Q

Define Ribose

A

The sugar component of RNA nucleotides.

110
Q

In DNA, which bases pair up with one another?

A

AT ; GC

111
Q

In RNA, which bases pair up with one another?

A

AU; GC

112
Q

Define Double-Helix

A

The form of native DNA; referring to its two adjacent anti parallel polynucleotide strands wound around an imaginary axis into a spiral shape.

113
Q

Define Antiparallel

A

Referring to the arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix.

114
Q

Define Bioinformatics

A

The use of computer software and other computational tools that can handle and analyze these larger data sets.

115
Q

Do Cytosine and Guanine have more hydrogen bonds in between them or Adenine and Thymine?

A

Cytosine and Guanine; because of this, more energy will be required for strands that contain more of them to be broken.

116
Q

How is DNA read?

A

It’s always read from 5’ to 3’.

117
Q

How do gels separate DNA?

A

They separate DNA based on the size of the DNA fragments.

Bio 5A Lecture (16 decks)

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