Chapter 5: The Structure And Function Of Large Biological Molecules Flashcards
1
Q
What are the 4 major classes the molecules can be put in?
A
Carbohydrates-Lipids-Proteins-Nucleic Acids. CLPA
2
Q
Define Macromolecules
A
A giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a dehydration reaction. Polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids are macromolecules.
3
Q
What does dehydrogenase do in the body?
A
It breaks down alcohol.
4
Q
Macromolecules are _____ built from _____.
A
Polymers-Monomers
5
Q
Define Polymer
A
A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together by covalent bonds.
6
Q
Define Monomers
A
The subunit that serves as the building block for polymers.
7
Q
Define Enzymes
A
A macromolecule serving as a catalyst; a chemical agent that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction. Most enzymes are proteins.
8
Q
Define Dehydration Reaction
A
A chemical reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to one another with the removal of a water molecule. DJ (Dehydration-Joined)
9
Q
When a bond forms between two monomers, what exactly happens?
A
One monomer provides a hydroxyl group (-OH), while the other provides a hydrogen (-H).
10
Q
How are polymers disassembled to monomers?
A
Through Hydrolysis
11
Q
Define Hydrolysis
A
A chemical reaction that breaks bonds between two molecules by the addition of water; functions in the disassembly of polymers. HB (Hydrolysis-Breaking)
12
Q
What is an example of hydrolysis in our bodies?
A
Digestion
13
Q
_____ serve as fuel and building material.
A
Carbohydrates
14
Q
Define Carbohydrates
A
A sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharides) or polymers (polysaccharides).
15
Q
Define Monosaccharides
A
The simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also called simple sugars, monosaccharides have molecules formulas that are generally some multiple of CH2O.
16
Q
What is the most common monosaccharide?
A
Glucose (C6H12O6)
17
Q
How are ketoses and aldoses distinguished structurally?
A
It depends on the location of the carbonyl group.
18
Q
What is the range for the size of carbon rings in sugars?
A
3-7.
19
Q
What is an asymmetric carbon?
A
A carbon that is bonded to 4 different groups.
20
Q
For Aldehyde groups, where are the carbonyl groups located?
A
At the end of the carbon skeleton. AE
21
Q
For ketones, where are the carbonyl groups located?
A
Within the carbon skeleton. KW
22
Q
What is the formula for Trioses and what are two examples?
A
C3H6O3; Glyceraldehyde- Dihydroxyacetone
23
Q
What is the formula for Pentoses and what are two examples?
A
C5H10O5; Ribose-Ribulose
24
Q
What is the formula for Hexoses and what are two examples?
A
C6H12O6; glucose, galactose, fructose
25
In ring structures, what does each unlabeled corner represent?
Carbon
26
What does the thicker edge of the ring indicate?
That you’re looking at the ring edge-on. The components attached to the ring lie above or below the plane of the ring.
27
Define Disaccharide
A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage formed by a dehydration reaction.
28
Define Glycosidic Linkage
A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.
29
______ is a disaccharide formed by the linking of two molecules of glucose.
Maltose
30
What is the most prevalent disaccharide?
Sucrose
31
What must happen to disaccharides for them to be used as energy in organisms?
They must be broken down to monosaccharides.
32
Lactose intolerance is a common condition in humans who lack _____, the enzyme that breaks down lactose.
Lactase
33
Define Polysaccharides
A polymer of many monosaccharides, formed by dehydration reactions.
34
What are some functions of polysaccharides?
Serve as storage material- Building material for structures that protect the cell or the whole organism. SP
35
Define Starch
A storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting entirely of glucose monomers joined by glycosidic linkages.
36
What is the simplest form of starch called?
Amylose
37
Define Glycogen
An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.
38
Define Cellulose
A structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by BETA glycosidic linkages.
39
What is the most abundant organic compound on earth?
Cellulose
40
What are the ways that the hydroxyl group can be arranged in glucose rings?
The hydroxyl group attached to the number 1 carbon is positioned either below or above the plane of the ring: these two ring forms are called alpha and beta. If it’s below, it’s alpha; if it’s above, it’s beta. ABBA
41
In plant cells, what are parallel cellulose molecules held together by hydrogen bonds called?
Microfibrils
42
What is something that cellulose does in our body?
On its way to being passed through the system through feces, the cellulose abrades the wall of the digestive tract and stimulates the lining to secrete mucus, which aids in the smooth passage of food through the tract.
43
How is cellulose referred to in food packages?
Insoluble Fiber
44
Define Lipids
Any of a group of large biological molecules, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that mix poorly, if at all, with water. FPS
45
What is one important shared trait between lipids?
That they mix poorly, if at all, with water.
46
What do lipids mostly consist of chemically?
Hydrocarbons
47
Define Fat
A lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a triacylglycerol or triglyceride.
48
What is glycerol?
An alcohol; each of its three carbons bear a hydroxyl group.
49
Define Fatty Acid
A carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain. Fatty acids vary in length and in the number and location of double bonds; three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule form a fat molecule, also called a triacylglycerol or triglyceride.
50
What is an ester linkage?
A bond formed by the dehydration reaction between a hydroxyl group and a carboxyl group. EHC
51
Define Triacylglycerol
A lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a fat or triglyceride.
52
Define Saturated Fatty Acid
A fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected.
53
Define Unsaturated Fatty Acid
A fatty acid that has one or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.
54
Nearly every double bond in naturally occurring fatty acid is a _____ double bond.
Cis
55
What are some difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?
For saturated fats, at room temperature, the molecules are packed together closely, forming a solid.
For unsaturated fats, the molecules cannot pack together closely enough to solidify because of the kinks in some of their fatty acid hydrocarbon chains.
56
What leads to the development of atherosclerosis?
A diet rich in saturated fat.
57
What happens in the condition of atherosclerosis?
Deposits called plaques develop within the walls of blood vessels, causing inward bulges that impede blood flow and reduce the resilience of the vessels.
58
Define Trans Fats
An unsaturated fat, formed artificially during hydrogenation of oils, containing one or more trans double bonds. TU
59
Define Phospholipid
A lipid made up of glycerol joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate group. The hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids act as non polar, hydrophobic tails, while the rest of the molecule acts as a polar, hydrophilic head. Phospholipids form bilayers that function as biological membranes.
60
How are phospholipids arranged in a bilayer?
The hydrophilic heads are facing outwards, while the hydrophobic tails are facing inwards.
61
Define Steroids
A type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings with various chemical groups attached.
62
Define Cholesterol
A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids, such as many hormones. CMH (Membrane-Hormones)
63
Define Catalyst
A chemical agent that selectively increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
64
Proteins are constructed from a set of _____ amino acids.
20
65
What is the bond between amino acids called?
Peptide Bond
66
Define Polypeptide
A polymer of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
67
Define Protein
A biologically functional molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific three dimensional structure.
68
Define Amino Acid
An organic molecule possessing both a carboxyl and an amino group. Amino acids serve as the monomers of polypeptides. ACA
69
What are the four different partners of amino acids?
Amino Group-H- Carboxyl-R (variable) ACRH
70
What are the different types of proteins?
Enzymatic-Storage-Hormonal-Contractile-Defensive-Transport-Receptor-Structural. ESHC-DTRS
71
Describe everything about Enzymatic Proteins
Function: selective acceleration of chemical reactions
Example: Digestive Enzymes. ED
72
Explain everything about Storage Proteins
Function: Storage of amino acids.
Examples: Casein. SC
73
Explain everything about Hormonal Proteins
Function: coordination of an organism’s activities.
Example: insulin
74
Explain everything about contractile and motor proteins.
Function: Movement
Example: Undulations of the Cilia and Flagella
75
Explain everything about Defensive Proteins
Function: Protection against disease.
Example: Antibodies inactivate and help destroy viruses and bacteria.
76
Explain everything about Transport Proteins
Function: Transport of substances.
Example: Hemoglobin, the iron-containing protein of vertebrate blood.
77
Explain everything about Receptor Proteins
Function: Response of cell to chemical stimuli
Example: Receptors built into the membrane of a nerve cell.
78
Explain everything about structural proteins.
Function: Support
Example: Keratin
79
Acidic amino acids have side chains that are generally _____in charge due to the presence of a carboxyl group.
Negative
80
Define Peptide Bond
The covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group of another, formed by a dehydration reaction.
81
The _____ sequence of each polypeptide determines what three-dimensional structure the protein will have under normal cellular conditions.
Amino Acid
82
What are the superimposed structures that proteins have?
Primary-Secondary-Tertiary-Quaternary. PSTQ (quaternary arises when a protein consist of two or more polypeptide chains.
83
Define Primary Structure
The level of protein structure referring to the specific linear sequence of amino acids.
84
Define Secondary Structure
Regions of repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen being between constituents of the backbone (not the side chains).
85
Define Alpha Helix
A coiled region constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific pattern of hydrogen bonding between atoms of the polypeptide backbone (not the side chains).
86
Define Beta Pleated Sheet
One form of the secondary structure of proteins in which the polypeptide chain folds back and forth. Two regions of the chain lie parallel to each other and are held together by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbone (not the side chains).
87
Define Tertiary Structure
The overall shape of a protein molecule due to interactions of amino acid side chains, including hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges. TS-HIHD
88
Define Hydrophobic Interaction
A type of weak chemical interaction caused when molecules that do not mix with water coalesce to exclude water.
89
Define Disulfide Bridges
A strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer.
90
Define Quaternary Structure
The particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide.
91
What is the function of normal hemoglobin?
Normal hemoglobin proteins do not associated with one another; each carries oxygen.
92
What is the function of Sickle-Cell hemoglobin?
Hydrophobic interactions between sickle-cell hemoglobin proteins lead to their aggregation into a fiber; capacity to carry oxygen is greatly reduced.
93
Define Sickle-Cell Disease
A recessively inherited human blood disorder in which a single nucleotide change in the alpha-globin gene causes hemoglobin to aggregate, changing red blood cell shape and causing multiple symptoms in afflicted individuals.
94
Define Denaturation
In proteins, a process in which a protein loses its native shape due to the disruption of weak chemical bonds and interactions, thereby becoming biologically inactive; in DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix. Denaturation occurs under extreme (non cellular) conditions of pH, salt concentration, or temperature. PST
95
Define X-Ray Crystallography
A technique used to study the three-dimensional structure of molecules. It depends on the diffraction of an X-ray beam by the individual atoms of a crystallized molecule.
96
Nucleic acids _____, _____, and help _____ hereditary information.
Store-Transmit-Express. STE
97
Define Gene
A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).
98
Define Nucleic Acids
A polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities. The two types are DNA and RNA.
99
Define Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
A nucleic acid molecule, usually a double-stranded helix, in which each polynucleotide strand consists of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine; capable of being replicated and determining the inherited structure of a cell’s proteins. ATGC
100
Define Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
A type of nucleic acid consisting of a polynucleotide made up of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil; usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis, un gene regulation, and as the genome of some viruses. AGCU
101
Define Gene Expression
The process by which information encoded in DNA directs the synthesis of proteins or, in some cases, RNAs that are not translated into proteins and instead function as RNAs.
102
Define Polynucleotides
A polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers in a chain. The nucleotide can be those of DNA or RNA.
103
Define Nucleotides
The building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and one to three phosphate groups.
104
What are the two families of nitrogenous bases called?
Pyrimidine-Purine
105
Define Pyrimidine
One of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a six-member end ring. Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil are pyrimidines. Pie-6-CTU
106
Define Purines
One of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a six-member end ring fused to a five-member end ring. Adenine and Guanine are purines. AG
107
_____ is only found in DNA and _____ only in RNA.
Thymine-Uracil
108
Define Deoxyribose
The sugar component of DNA nucleotides, having one fewer hydroxyl groups than ribose, the sugar component of RNA nucleotides.
109
Define Ribose
The sugar component of RNA nucleotides.
110
In DNA, which bases pair up with one another?
AT ; GC
111
In RNA, which bases pair up with one another?
AU; GC
112
Define Double-Helix
The form of native DNA; referring to its two adjacent anti parallel polynucleotide strands wound around an imaginary axis into a spiral shape.
113
Define Antiparallel
Referring to the arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix.
114
Define Bioinformatics
The use of computer software and other computational tools that can handle and analyze these larger data sets.
115
Do Cytosine and Guanine have more hydrogen bonds in between them or Adenine and Thymine?
Cytosine and Guanine; because of this, more energy will be required for strands that contain more of them to be broken.
116
How is DNA read?
It's always read from 5' to 3'.
117
How do gels separate DNA?
They separate DNA based on the size of the DNA fragments.
