chapter 5: perception, action, and learning in infancy

Question 1

sensation

Answer 1

the processing of basic information from the external world via receptors in the sense organs (eyes, ears, skin, etc.) and brain

Question 2

perception

Answer 2

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information

Question 3

preferential-looking technique

Answer 3

a method for studying visual attention in infants that involves showing infants two images simultaneously to see if the infants prefer one over the other (indexed by longer looking)

Question 4

visual acuity

Answer 4

the sharpness and clarity of vision

Question 5

contrast sensitivity

Answer 5

the ability to detect differences in light and dark areas in a visual pattern

Question 6

cone cells

Answer 6

light-sensitive neurons that are highly concentrated in the fovea (the central region of the retina)

Question 7

smooth pursuit eye movements

Answer 7

visual behavior in which the viewer’s gaze shifts at the same rate and angle as a moving object

Question 8

perceptual constancy

Answer 8

the perception of objects as being of constant size, shape, color, etc., in spite of physical differences in the retinal image of the object

Question 9

object segregation

Answer 9

the identification of separate objects in a visual array

Question 10

violation-of-expectancy

Answer 10

a procedure used to study infant cognition in which infants are shown an event that should evoke surprise or interest if it goes against something the infant knows

Question 11

optical expansion

Answer 11

a depth cue in which an object occludes increasingly more of the background, indicating that the object is approaching

Question 12

binocular disparity

Answer 12

the difference between the retinal image of an object in each eye that results in two slightly different signals being sent to the brain

Question 13

stereopsis

Answer 13

the process by which the visual cortex combines the differing neural signals caused by binocular disparity, resulting in the perception of depth

Question 14

monocular depth (or pictorial) cues

Answer 14

the perceptual cues of depth (such as relative size and interposition) that can be perceived by one eye alone

Question 15

auditory localization

Answer 15

perception of the location in space of a sound source

Question 16

perceptual narrowing

Answer 16

developmental changes in which experience fine-tunes the perceptual system

Question 17

intermodal perception

Answer 17

the combining of information from two or more sensory systems

Question 18

reflexes

Answer 18

fixed patterns of action that occur in response to particular stimulation

Question 19

stepping reflex

Answer 19

a neonatal reflex in which an infant lifts first one leg and then the other in a coordinated pattern like walking

Question 20

affordances

Answer 20

the possibilities for action offered, or afforded, by objects and situations

Question 21

pre-reaching movements

Answer 21

clumsy swiping movements by young infants toward objects they see

Question 22

self-locomotion

Answer 22

the ability to move oneself around in the environment

Question 23

scale error

Answer 23

the attempt by a young child to perform an action on a miniature object that is impossible due to the large discrepancy in the relative sizes of the child and the object

Question 24

classical conditioning

Answer 24

a form of learning that consists of associating an initially neutral stimulus with a stimulus that always evokes a particular reflexive response

Question 25

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Answer 25

a stimulus that evokes a reflexive response

Question 26

unconditioned response (UCR)

Answer 26

a reflexive response that is elicited by the unconditioned stimulus

Question 27

conditioned stimulus (CS)

Answer 27

the neutral stimulus that is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus

Question 28

conditioned response (CR)

Answer 28

the originally reflexive response that comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus

Question 29

instrumental (or operant) conditioning

Answer 29

learning the relation between one’s own behavior and the consequences that result from it

Question 30

positive reinforcement

Answer 30

a reward that reliably follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated

Question 31

rational learning

Answer 31

the ability to use prior experiences to predict what will occur in the future

Question 32

active learning

Answer 32

learning by engaging with the world, rather than passively observing objects and events