chapter 1: an introduction to child development

Question 1

meta-analysis

Answer 1

a method for combining the results from independent studies to reach conclusions based on all of them

Question 2

amygdala

Answer 2

an area of the brain that is involved in emotional reactions

Question 3

nature

Answer 3

our biological endowment; the genes we receive from our parents

Question 4

nurture

Answer 4

the environments, both physical and social, that influence our development

Question 5

genome

Answer 5

each person’s complete set of hereditary information

Question 6

epigenetics

Answer 6

the study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment

Question 7

methylation

Answer 7

a biochemical process that influences behavior by suppressing gene activity and expression

Question 8

continuous development

Answer 8

the idea that changes with age occur gradually, in small increments, like that of a pine tree growing taller and taller

Question 9

discontinuous development

Answer 9

the idea that changes with age include occasional large shifts, like the transition from caterpillar to cocoon to butterfly

Question 10

stage theories

Answer 10

approaches proposing that development involves a series of large, discontinuous, age-related phases

Question 11

cognitive development

Answer 11

the development of thinking and reasoning

Question 12

neurotransmitters

Answer 12

chemicals involved in communication among brain cells

Question 13

sociocultural context

Answer 13

the physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up any child’s environment

Question 14

socioeconomic status (SES)

Answer 14

a measure of social class based on income and education

Question 15

cumulative risk

Answer 15

the accumulation of disadvantages over years of development

Question 16

scientific method

Answer 16

an approach to testing beliefs that involves choosing a question, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and drawing a conclusion

Question 17

hypotheses

Answer 17

testable predictions of the presence or absence of phenomena or relations

Question 18

reliability

Answer 18

the degree to which independent measurements of a given behavior are consistent

Question 19

interrater reliability

Answer 19

the amount of agreement in the observations of different raters who witness the same behavior

Question 20

test-retest reliability

Answer 20

the degree of similarity of a participant’s performance on two or more occasions

Question 21

validity

Answer 21

the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure

Question 22

internal validity

Answer 22

the degree to which effects observed within experiments can be attributed to the factor that the researcher is testing

Question 23

external validity

Answer 23

the degree to which results can be generalized beyond the particulars of the research

Question 24

structured interview

Answer 24

a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions

Question 25

questionnaire

Answer 25

a method that allows researchers to gather information from a large number of participants simultaneously by presenting them a uniform set of printed questions

Question 26

clinical interview

Answer 26

a procedure in which questions are adjusted in accord with the answers the interviewee provides

Question 27

naturalistic observation

Answer 27

examination of ongoing behavior in an environment not controlled by the researcher

Question 28

structured observation

Answer 28

a method that involves presenting an identical situation to each participant and recording the participant’s behavior

Question 29

variables

Answer 29

attributes that vary across individuals and situations, such as age, sex, and popularity

Question 30

correlational designs

Answer 30

studies intended to indicate how two variables are related to each other

Question 31

correlation

Answer 31

the association between two variables

Question 32

direction-of-causation problem

Answer 32

the concept that a correlation between two variables does not indicate which, if either, variable is the cause of the other

Question 33

third-variable problem

Answer 33

the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable

Question 34

experimental designs

Answer 34

a group of approaches that allow inferences about causes and effects to be drawn

Question 35

random assignment

Answer 35

a procedure in which each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to each group within an experiment

Question 36

experimental control

Answer 36

the ability of researchers to determine the specific experiences of participants during the course of an experiment

Question 37

experimental group

Answer 37

the group of participants in an experimental design who are presented the experience of interest

Question 38

control group

Answer 38

the group of participants in an experimental design who are not presented the experience of interest but in other ways are treated similarly

Question 39

independent variable

Answer 39

the experience that participants in the experimental group receive and that those in the control group do not receive

Question 40

dependent variable

Answer 40

a behavior that is measured to determine whether it is affected by exposure to the independent variable

Question 41

cross-sectional design

Answer 41

a research method in which participants of different ages are compared on a given behavior or characteristic over a short period

Question 42

longitudinal design

Answer 42

a method of study in which the same participants are studied twice or more over a substantial length of time

Question 43

microgenetic design

Answer 43

a method of study in which the same participants are studied repeatedly over a short period