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Biology 151 (Semester 1) > Chapter 42 > Flashcards

Chapter 42 Flashcards

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1
Q

gastrovascular cavity

A

functions to distribute substances throughout body as well as in digestion
o Found in hydras, jellies, and cnidarians
o Fluid bathes inner and outer tissue layers, facilitating exchange of gases and cellular waste
o Nutrients only have to diffuse a small distance

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2
Q

heart

A

powers circulation by using metabolic energy to elevate circulatory fluid’s hydrostatic pressure

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3
Q

open circulatory system

A

circulatory system in which circulatory fluid (hemolymph) is also the interstitial fluid that bathes body cells
o Found in arthropods (grasshoppers) and molluscs
o Heart contraction pumps hemolymph through circulatory system into sinuses
o Chemical exchange occurs between hemolymph and body cells within sinuses

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4
Q

hemolymph

A

the interstitial fluid that bathes body cells in an open circulatory system

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5
Q

sinuses

A

space surrounding organs

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6
Q

closed circulatory system

A

circulatory system in which circulatory fluid (blood) is confined to vessels and distinct from interstitial fluid
o Chemical exchange occurs between blood and interstitial fluid
o One or more hearts pump blood
o Found in annelids (earthworms), cephalopods (squids and octopi), and all vertebrates

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7
Q

circulatory system

A

the closed circulatory system of humans and vertebrates

o Blood circulates to and from heart via vessels

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8
Q

arteries

A

carry blood from heart to organs in body

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9
Q

arterioles

A

branch from arteries

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10
Q

capillaries

A

microscopic vessels with thin, porous walls

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11
Q

capillary beds

A

networks of capillaries which infiltrate tissues

o Found within every cell of the body

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12
Q

venules

A

branch from capillaries

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13
Q

veins

A

carry blood back to the heart

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14
Q

portal veins

A

carry blood between capillary beds

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15
Q

hepatic portal vein

A

carries blood from capillary beds in digestive system to capillary beds in the liver

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16
Q

atria

A

muscular chambers that receive blood entering the heart

• Most of the blood that enters here flows into the ventricles

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17
Q

ventricles

A

chambers responsible for pumping blood out of heart
• Have thick muscle walls
• Left ventricle pumps blood via the systemic circuit (with greater force)

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18
Q

single circulation

A

when blood passes through the heart once in a complete circuit
o Found in bony fishes, rays, and sharks
o Blood enters in the atrium then goes to the ventricle
o Contraction of the ventricle pumps blood to capillary bed in the gills
o There is a net diffusion of O2 and CO2 from blood
o Blood pressure drops before entering capillary bed

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19
Q

double circulation

A

has two circuits which are combined into single organ- the heart
o Found in amphibians, reptiles, and mammals
o Provides rigorous blood flow to brain, muscles, and organs

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20
Q

pulmonary circuit

A

when the pump on the right side of the heart delivers deoxygenated blood to capillary beds
• CO2 and O2 exchange occurs

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21
Q

pulmocutaneous circuit

A

when blood pumps through right side of heart and through capillaries of lungs and skin

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22
Q

systemic circuit

A

when oxygenated blood is carried to organs, deoxygenated blood is carried away from organs

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23
Q

cardiac cycle

A

one complete sequence of pumping and filling

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24
Q

systole

A

contraction phase of pumping heart

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25
Q

diastole

A

relaxation phase of pumping heart

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26
Q

cardiac output

A

the volume of blood each ventricle pumps per minute
• heart rate: number of beats per minute
• stroke volume: the amount of blood pumped by a ventricle in a single contraction
 ~70 mL or 5 mL/min

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27
Q

atrioventricular (AV) valve

A

lies between atrium and venricle
o Anchored by strong fibers
o Keeps blood from blowing back into the atria

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28
Q

semilunar valves

A

Prevents backflow of blood
o Located where aorta leaves LV and where pulmonary artery leaves RV
o Are pushed open by pressure generated through contraction of the ventricles

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29
Q

heart murmur

A

when blood squirts backward through a defective valve

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30
Q

sinoatrial (SA) node

A

cluster of cells which set rate and timing at which cardiac muscles contract
o ‘pacemaker’
o Impulses spread via gap junctions
o Generate impulses that cause the atria to contract in unison

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31
Q

Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)

A

when electrodes are placed on the skin and the currents generated by impulses are measured
• Detects stages of the cardiac cycle

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32
Q

Atrioventricular (AV) node

A

relay point where nerve impulses are delayed for 0.1 seconds before spreading to the apex (the top) of the heart

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33
Q

purkinje fibers

A

spread signals from AV node to heart apex through ventricular walls.

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34
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A

speeds up your pacemaker to allow for more O2 to be brought to muscles

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35
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A

slows down your pacemaker, decreasing heart rate and conserving energy
• Increase in body temperature increases heart rate

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36
Q

endothelium

A

a single layer of flattened epithelial cells

o Surface minimizes resistance to flow of blood

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37
Q

capillaries

A

where exchange of substances between blood and interstitial fluid occurs

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38
Q

basal lamina

A

extracellular layer which surrounds capillaries

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39
Q

systolic pressure

A

when heart contracts during ventricular systole

o When arterial blood pressure is highest

40
Q

pulse

A

rhythmic bulging of artery walls with each heartbeat

o Easy to find because arterioles are narrow

41
Q

diastolic pressure

A

the relaxed pressure that results when the walls of arteries snap back
o After this, heart contracts again

42
Q

vasoconstriction

A

the narrowing of the arteriole walls which increases blood pressure upstream in the arteries

43
Q

vasodilation

A

smooth muscle causes arterioles to increase in diameter, causing blood pressure to fall
o Nitric oxide plays a role in inducing vasodilation
o Often occurs during heavy exercise. However, it is accompanied by an increase in cardiac output which increases blood flow.

44
Q

precapillary sphincters

A

rings of smooth muscle located at the entrance to capillary beds
o Helps regulate and redirect passage of blood into particular capillaries
o Regulated via hormones

45
Q

histamine

A

a chemical which plays a role in triggering vasodilation to increase blood flow to wounds and thus more white blood cells

46
Q

osmotic pressure

A

the pressure generated by the difference in solute concentration across a membrane
o Dissolved blood proteins (the can’t pass thru the endothelium!) are responsible for the osmotic pressure

47
Q

lymphatic system

A

network of tiny vessels intermingled among capillaries
o Empty into veins in base of neck
o Have valves which prevent backflow of fluid

48
Q

lymph

A

fluid lost by capillaries

49
Q

edema

A

fluid (lymph) accumulation

50
Q

lymph nodes

A

lymph-filtering organs which consist of white blood cells

• Can also trap circulating cancer cells

51
Q

plasma

A

liquid matrix which in which blood is suspended
• Consist of ions and proteins which function in osmotic regulation, transport, and defense
• Also consists of nutrients, metabolic wastes, respiratory gases, and hormones.
• 55% of blood
• Has higher protein concentration than interstitial fluid

52
Q

albumins

A

plasma proteins that act as buffers against pH change

 Help maintain osmotic balance between blood and interstitial fluid

53
Q

immunoglobulin

A

plasma proteins which act as antibodies that which combat viruses & foreign agents

54
Q

Apololipoproteins

A

proteins that escort lipids (which are insoluble in water)

55
Q

fibrinogens

A

clotting factors which plug leaks in broken blood vessels

56
Q

serum

A

blood plasma from which clotting factors have been removed

57
Q

platelets

A

pinched-off cytoplasmic fragments of specialized bone marrow cells
 Cell fragments involved with blood clotting
 Have no nuclei
 ~2-3 micrometers in length

58
Q

erythrocytes

A

red blood cells
 5-6 million red cells found per each microliter of blood
 One cell consists of ~250 million molecules of hemoglobin
 Main function: O2 transport
 Small, biconcave disks (shape increases surface area, enhancing rate of diffusion
 Lack nuclei

59
Q

hemoglobin

A

iron-containing protein which transports O2

• 1 molecule of hemoglobin binds to 4 molecules of O2

60
Q

sickle cell anemia

A

when abnormal form of hemoglobin polymerizes into many different molecules instead of one, thus distorting erythrocyte shape
• Results from alteration in amino acid sequence at single position
• Blood vessel from erythrocytes blockage results in organ swelling= severe pain
• Shorter life span of blood cell

61
Q

leukocytes

A

fight infection
o Some are phagocytic
o 5-10,000 leukocytes found in one microliter of blood
o Lymphocytes: leukocytes which develop into B and T cells that mount immune responses against foreign substances

62
Q

multipotent stem cells

A

have ability to develop into multiple types of cells

o Produce either lymphoid or myeloid cells

63
Q

myeloid cells

A

Differentiate to form either erythrocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, platelets, or monocytes

64
Q

lymphoid cells

A

differentiate to form either B or T cells (lymphocytes)

65
Q

Erythropoietin (EPO)

A

hormone released from kidneys which stimulates the growth of more erythrocytes when O2 levels in tissue drop
o Works via negative-feedback

66
Q

thrombin

A

enzyme that converts fibrinogen to fibrin
• Released in response to broken blood vessel
• Its production works via positive-feedback

67
Q

hemophilia

A

characterized by excessive bleeding, bruising

o Caused by inability to clot blood

68
Q

thrombus

A

a clot that forms within the blood vessel which blocks the flow of blood

69
Q

atherosclerosis

A

hardening of artery walls due to fatty plaque deposits

o Caused by cholesterol

70
Q

Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)

A

delivers cholesterol to cells for membrane production

o ‘Bad’ cholesterol

71
Q

High-density lipoprotein (HDL)

A

returns excess cholesterol to liver

o ‘Good’ cholesterol

72
Q

heart attack (myocardial infarction)

A

death or damage of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from blockage of one or more coronary arteries (which supply oxygen-rich blood to heart)

73
Q

stroke

A

death of nervous tissue in brain due to lack of O2

o Caused by rupture of blocked arteries in the head

74
Q

hypertension

A

high blood pressure
o Contributes to heart attack and stroke
o Chronic high blood pressure damages endothelium lining arteries, promoting plaque formation

75
Q

partial pressure

A

the pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases

76
Q

ventilation

A

movement of the respiratory medium over the respiratory surface
o Maintains partial pressure gradients of O2 and CO2 across gill that are necessary for gas exchange.

77
Q

countercurrent exchange

A

the exchange of a substance or heat between two fluids flowing in opposite directions
o Blood entering gill capillary encounters water that is depleted of its dissolved O2 and has a higher PO2 than incoming blood. Thus, O2 transfer occurs. As blood keeps on moving, PO2 and PH2O increases. Thus, O2 is diffused from water to blood.

78
Q

tracheal system

A

network of air tubes that branch throughout body
o Functions in gas exchange
o Found in terrestrial animals

79
Q

lungs

A

localized respiratory organs

o Evolved in organisms with open circulatory systems

80
Q

larynx

A

upper part of respiratory tract

o Moves upward and tips epiglottis over glottis upon ingestion

81
Q

glottis

A

opening of the trachea

82
Q

bronchi

A

what trachea branch into

83
Q

bronchioles

A

fine tubes the bronchi branch into

• Epithelial is covered in cilia which moves mucus toward pharynx

84
Q

alveoli

A

air sacs clustered at the tips of bronchioles which function is gas exchange
• Consist of white blood cells which engulf foreign particles

85
Q

surfactant

A

mixture of phospholipids and proteins which coat alveoli and reduce surface tension

86
Q

parabronchi

A

tiny channels that serve as sites of gas exchange in birds

• Birds pass air in only one direction

87
Q

negative pressure breathing

A

pulling, rather than pushing air into the lungs
o Mammals lower air pressure in lungs using muscle contraction and blood flows down into tubes of alveoli
o During exhalation, muscles relax and volume of cavity is reduced. Increased air pressure in alveoli forces air out of body

88
Q

diaphragm

A

sheet of skeletal muscle that forms bottom wall of thoracic cavity

89
Q

tidal volume

A

the volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each breath

o ~500 mL

90
Q

vital capacity

A

tidal volume during maximum inhalation

o ~3.4-4.8 L

91
Q

residual volume

A

the air that remains after a forced exhalation

o Increases with old age

92
Q

breathing control centers

A

neural circuits found in medulla
o Establish breathing rhythm
o Medulla uses pH of surrounding tissue as indicator of blood CO2 concen.
o CO2 diffuses from blood to cerebrospinal fluid where it reacts with water to form carbonic acid
o High CO2 concen. leads to increase in H+ concen.

93
Q

respiratory pigments

A

proteins that circulate the blood or hemolymph and are contained within specialized cells
o Increase the amount of O2 that can be carried in circulatory fluid
o Resp. pigment for almost all vertebrates is hemoglobin

94
Q

hemocyanin

A

blue pigment found in arthropods and molluscs

95
Q

bohr shift

A

when low pH decreases the affinity of hemoglobin for O2

o This causes more O2 to be produced when more CO2 is present

96
Q

myoglobin

A

an oxygen-storing protein found in muscles

• Hemoglobin minimizes changes in blood pH

97
Q

Hydrostatic pressure

A

the pressure fluid exerts on surrounding vessels

Biology 151 (Semester 1) (19 decks)

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