Chapter 4 - Congnition, Consciousness, And Language

Question 1

___ is the process of our brains taking in and responding to the world’s stimuli.

Answer 1

Cognition

Question 2

Cognition also follows a similar process to memory of : ___, ___, and ___

Answer 2

Encoding, storage, and retrieval

Question 3

There are different theories on how the encoding and processing takes place in the brain. Some of which include:

___-___ theory: both verbal and visual clues to build redundancy and increase efficiency by Paivio

The ___ ___ ___ believes in four pillars. It also accounts for the role context and emotions play in cognition, similar to memory.

Answer 3

Dual-coding thoery

Information processing model

Question 4

The ___ pillars of the ___ ___ model include:

1) Cognition requires ___, ___, and ___ of stimuli
2) The stimuli then must be ___ processed rather than ___ for it be part of decision making.
3) Previous decisions help in similar situations; called ___ ___.
4) Problem solving is impacted by ___ and ___.

Answer 4

Four; information processing model

Encoding, storage, retrieval
Controlled; automatic
Situation modification
Context and emotions

Question 5

___ development is the ability to think and problem solve. It is limited by how developed the brain is. Piaget’s development theory is the most prominent and is broken into four continuous, and sequential stages: ___, ___, ___, and ___.

Answer 5

Cognitive

Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, and Formal Operational

Question 6

This theory believes infants learned through ___, a process was then split into ___ and ___.

___ believes that infants take known reflexes and respond and manipulate the environment. Each of these behaviours, concepts, or events can be organized into ___.

Based on whether new information falls into existing ___—___ or a modification has to be made—___ is the basis of Piaget’s theory.

Answer 6

Adaptation: assimilation and accommodation

Piaget; schema

Schema; Assimilation; Accommodation

Question 7

Piaget’s first stage of development is ___.

0 - 2. It includes ___ reactions where children repeat behaviours. These behaviours are either ___ ___ reactions or ___ ___ reactions, depending on if they originated from innate behaviours or outside the body. All of these behaviours help the child manipulate the environment based on their needs.

This stage ends with ___ ___, where a child learns an object continues to exist even when out of sight. This also begins ___ ___, a process of associating words and images in the brain.

Answer 7

Sensorimotor

Circular
Primary circular reactions
Secondary circular reactions

Object permanence; representational thought

Question 8

The second stage of cognitive development is ___. It includes ___, ___, and ___ and lasts from 2 -7.

___ is the inability to think about other’s emotions and thoughts.
___ is the inability to understand ___— the ability to differentiate quantity and amount.
___ is the ability to have an imagination.

Answer 8

Egocentrism
Centration; conservation
Symbolic thinking

Question 9

___ ___ is the third stage of cognitive development where the child is 7-11. By this point the child can empathize with others—lacks ___, understand quantity v. amount—___, and logically think as long as the information is concrete or physical or directly available. Meaning, ___ thinking is still not possible.

Answer 9

Concrete operation
Egocentrism
Conservation
Abstract

Question 10

___ ___ is the final stage of cognitive development. At this stage, a child can ___ think, meaning concrete data is no longer needed. It also includes a lot more problem solving abilities.

Answer 10

Formal operational

Abstract

Question 11

Cognitive development is impacted by culture, age, the environment, and genetics.

___ believes that development occurred because children internalized their cultures. Culture impacts what is learned through observation or interactions with others.

Answer 11

Lev Vygotsky

Question 12

Age impacts cognitive ability with a ___ time-based prospective memory and intelligence of both types: ___ and ___. The former is about solving problems, while the latter focuses on using acquired skills.

This ___ is also linked with how well an adult performs ___ of daily ___, including basic rudimentary tasks. Certain factors can protect against this decline.

Answer 12

Decline

Fluid; Crystallized

Decline

Question 13

___ is a decline in cognitive ability associated with a disease and results in additional confusion and impaired memory.

Answer 13

Dementia

Question 14

Cognitive development is also affected by disorders, ___—resulting in Down Syndrome, as well as ___. For example, parenting styles and abuse of alcohol can cause changes in cognitive abilities.

Answer 14

Genetics

Environment

Question 15

___ is a rapid decline in cognitive abilities that is causes by medical causes including infections, and etc. and is usually reversible.

Answer 15

Delirium

Question 16

___ is a type of problem solving that relies on previous solutions that ended with positive results—approaching similar problems for the hope of a similar solution

Answer 16

Mental set

Question 17

___ ___ is belief that an object can only be used in a traditional manner—inside the box thinking

Answer 17

Functional fixedness

Question 18

There are several types of problem solving including approaching similar problems with a similar approach—___, a blind approach of testing until a solution comes about—___ and ___, following a set of rules or instructions to come up with a solution—___, and reasoning.

Answer 18

Mental set
Trial and error
Algorithm

Question 19

Reasoning is a type of problem solving that can be split into two types: ___ and ___. The former is a type of top-down reasoning where you draw conclusions from given facts—a solution is deduced based on the data given—no inference or generalization is made. The latter focuses on looking at data but coming with a trend or generalization—extrapolation is done by the data.

Answer 19

Deductive/top down

Inductive/bottom up

Question 20

Specific tools, like ___ can help in efficient and effective problem solving, where general rules of thumbs or principles simplify the issue. These tools can be split into ___ and ___.

The first focuses on what ideas can be thought of at the moment, while the latter focuses on data fitting the trend, like a stereotype.

Answer 20

Heuristics

Availability
Representative

Question 21

___ heuristics can cause a problem where numeric data is ignored to focus more on stereotype or trend from a small sample—also known as ___ ___ ___.

Answer 21

Representative

Base rate fallacy

Question 22

___ ___ is when a solution fails to solve the problem and is discarded.

This does not occur when an individual has ___ ___, where they tend to focus on information that aligns with their beliefs and discard others—usually stemming from ___, which is the idea that one’s beliefs and ideas are infallible.

When strong and clear evidence is rejected even though it proves one’s beliefs wrong, this is called ___ ___.

Answer 22

Disconfirmation principle

Confirmation bias; overconfidence

Belief perseverance

Question 23

___ is a problem solving technique where an individual makes a decision not based on evidence but rather feel or experience. An explanation for the “feel” is ___ ___ ___ ___: the brain’s ability to go through a mental set without awareness

Answer 23

Intuition

Recognition-primed decision model

Question 24

___ can impact decision making by both what an individual is feeling during the decision making process or how they expect they’ll feel in the future

Answer 24

Emotions

Question 25

Intellectual function or intelligence has many definitions but the most important is Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences which includes ___ types: 1) ___ 2) ___ 3) ___ 4) ___ 5) ___ 6) ___ 7) ___

Answer 25

7 1) linguistic 2) logical-mathematical 3) musical 4) visual-spatial 5) bodily-kinaesthetic 6) interpersonal 7) intrapersonal

Question 26

The ___-___ ___ (intelligence-quotient) test attempts to quantify intelligence based on Spearman’s g or general intelligence factor—a belief that there’s an underlying factor because of the strong correlation between cognitive abilities. It was calculated by mental age/chronological age * 100 initially.

Answer 26

Stanford-Binet IQ

Question 27

Intelligence is impacted by several factors including genetics and environment—which goes back to the ___ v. ___ debate

Answer 27

Nature v. Nurture

Question 28

___ is being aware of one’s surroundings and how one fits into those surroundings. There are different states of ___, including being alert, asleep, and altered.

Answer 28

Consciousness

Question 29

___ is a specific state of consciousness where one is awake and can think, meaning they can take in, process, access information and then formulate a response. The prefrontal cortex of the brain works with the ___ ___ which is located in the ___ to maintain alertness and arousal. This type of consciousness is signalized by ___ and ___ waves on an ___, high cortisol levels. The former has high frequency and are found while alter and concentrating and the latter waves have low frequency and are found when one is relaxed.

Answer 29

Alertness Electroencephalogram; Reticular formation; hindbrain Beta and alpha

Question 30

The first sleep stage in a cycle is ___, where ___ waves are observed on the electroencephalogram (EEG). These waves are have ___ frequencies and ___ voltages. This is where one begins to doze off and enter light sleep.

Answer 30

Stage 1 Theta Low frequency, high voltage

Question 31

___ sleep is indicated by theta waves along with ___ and ___. The former are high frequency, low voltage spikes while the latter is a high voltage low frequency spike.

Answer 31

Stage 2 Sleep spindles K complexes

Question 32

Stage 3 and 4 are referred to as ___ ___ ___, where one observes ___ waves, which have frequency of 1 wave/second and high voltages. These stages are when it is difficult to wake up, sleeping disorders hit, growth hormone is released, cognitive recovery, and ___ memory is solidified.

Answer 32

Slow wave sleep Delta waves Declarative—facts and stories

Question 33

The final stage of sleep includes ___ ___ ___ (REM), while the first four are ___ ___ ___ ___ (NREM) sleep. It is marked with ___ and ___ waves, which are the same waves shown when one is ___. Along with the same waves, one experiences the same breathing pattern and heart rate as awake, making it ___ ___. This sleep stage is where most dreams occur and when ___ memory is consolidated.

Answer 33

``` Rapid eye movement Non-rapid eye movement Alpha and beta Alter Paradoxical sleep Implicit—procedural and skills ```

Question 34

One complete ___ ___ marks going through all ___ stages of sleep. These ___ ___ increase in length as people age. They also change in terms of stage length as the night goes along. For example, the beginning is mainly ___ while the latter is ___ sleep.

Answer 34

``` Sleep cycle 5 Sleep cycles SWS (slow wave sleep) REM (rapid eye movement) ```

Question 35

Sleep is part of our natural ___ ___ or internal 24 hour clocks. It is regulated by mainly ___ hormones: ___ and ___. The first hormone is released by the ___ ___ in response to signals from the ___ about decreased light outside. This creates a sense of sleepiness. The second hormone is released by the ___ ___, in response to the ___ ___ released by the ___ __. The latter mentioned hormone is released because of the ___ ___ released by the ____. The last hormone is a response to increasing light. Altogether, these hormones work together to help one feel awake.

Answer 35

Circadian rhythms Two: melatonin and cortisol Pineal gland Retina to the hypothalmus ``` Adrenal cortex Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Anterior pituitary Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) Hypothalamus ```

Question 36

About 75% of dreams occur during REM sleep while the remainder in NREM. There are different theories on why sleep occurs including the following: ___ ___ ___: the belief that random neutrons are firing inside the brain with existing connections to form a somewhat familiar dream ___ ___ ___: the belief that dreams allow for individuals to solve problems without being obstructed by real life obstacles ___ ___ ___: the belief that dreams are just a mixture of thoughts ___ ___ ___: the hope to unify psychological aspect of dreams with the medical or physiological changes in the body

Answer 36

Activation-synthesis theory Problem-solving dream theory Cognitive process dream theory Neuro cognitive models of dreaming

Question 37

There are ___ different types of sleeping disorders called: ___ and ___. The former is the difficulty in ___, ___, or ____ sleep. The latter are behaviours experienced while sleeping.

Answer 37

Two: parasomnia and dyssomnia | Falling, staying, or preventing

Question 38

Examples of ___ disorders included ___: difficulty going to or staying asleep, ___: falling asleep spontaneously, and ___: a condition where one cannot breathe while asleep.

Answer 38

Dyssomnia Insomnia Narcolepsy Sleep apnea

Question 39

Specific symptoms of ___ include: ___—suddenly collapsing and entering REM sleep, ___ ___: being paralyzed even when awake, and ___ ___: hallucinations that occur when going to bed, ___ ___: hallucinations when waking up.

Answer 39

``` Narcolepsy Cataplexy Sleep paralysis Hypnagogic— going to bed—hallucinations Hypnopompic—popping out of bed—hallucinations ```

Question 40

___ ___ are a form of parasomnia, where usually children experience extreme stress and anxiety during Stage 3 and 4 or ___. Another form is sleepwalking to ___, which also occurs during the same stages of sleep.

Answer 40

Night terrors Slow wave sleep Somnambulism

Question 41

Sleeping disorders can lead to ___ ___, which results from little or poor quality sleep. Symptoms include irritability, decreased cognitive performance, slow reaction time, and even psychosis, and ___ ___: the ability to fall into REM sleep more quickly than normal

Answer 41

Sleep deprivation | REM rebound

Question 42

___ is an altered state of consciousness where someone can be easily manipulated even though they seem in control of their actions. This technique requires ___ ___ where one relaxes and focuses on a subject before being steered in a different direction.

Answer 42

Hypnosis | Hypnotic induction

Question 43

___ is a way to relax and quiet the mind which results in slow heat rate and blood pressure. It shows up as Stage 1 sleep with ___ waves on an EEG.

Answer 43

Meditation | Theta

Question 44

Specific drugs can cause altered states of consciousness. They are classified as ___, ___, ___, and ___.

Answer 44

Depressants, stimulants, opiates, hallucinogenics

Question 45

___ are a type of drug that inhibit activity in the nervous system to help one feel relaxed. Common examples of depressants include: ___, ___, ___, and ___.

Answer 45

Depressants Alcohol Barbiturates Benzodiazepines Marijuana

Question 46

Alcohol is an example of a ___, where it inhibits neural activity by increasing ___ levels. The mentioned compound then works as an inhibitory neurotransmitter by hyper-polarizing membranes. ___ levels are also increased to create euphoria sensations. Alcohol results in ___ ___: inability to see the consequences of actions, inappropriate behaviour because of inhibited impulse control, and difficulty in motor and logical skills. Excess consumption leads to cirrhosis, liver failure, pancreases damage, brain disorders, and ___-___ syndrome: a condition where memory is impaired because of a thiamine do B1 deficiency.

Answer 46

Depressants GABA Dopamine Alcohol myopia Wernicke’s-Korsakoff Syndrome

Question 47

___ are a type of depressant that help individuals relax. Examples include several drugs ending in barbital. These drugs caused many to overdose and replaced with ___. These drugs work in a similar fashion and also increase ___ levels. Examples generally end in pam. These drugs are high addictive and extremely dangerous when taken with alcohol.

Answer 47

Barbiturates Benzodiazepines GABA

Question 48

___ are a type of consciousness altering drug that increases neural activity. Usually, these drugs increase release of ___, ___, and ___. Examples include ___, ___, ___, and ___.

Answer 48

``` Stimulants Dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin Amphetamines Cocaine Ecstasy (MDMA) Mirjuana ```

Question 49

___ are a type of stimulant that increase ___, ___, and ___ levels. Effects includes increase arousal, increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, euphoria, paranoia, anxiety, etc. Long term abuse can lead to brain damage or stroke

Answer 49

Amphetamines Serotonin, Dopamine, norepinephrine

Question 50

___ is another type of stimulant that causes similar effects to amphetamines but with different mechanisms. It can also be used as surgical drug because of its vasoconstrictive properties but also prone to stroke and heart attacks when abused. ___ is the form of the drug that can be smoked.

Answer 50

Cocaine Crack

Question 51

___ is a manufactured amphetamine. Symptoms also include euphoria, increased blood pressure, heart rate, and alertness, but also hyperthermia, sweating and nausea.

Answer 51

Ecstasy

Question 52

___ is a drug derived from the poppy seed plant that decreases pain while increasing euphoric sensations. The drug is further divided into two categories: ___—natural occurring form and ___—a semi synthetic form. The former includes morphine while the latter includes oxycodone or ___—an ___ that was manufactured to replace morphine. These drugs cause overdose death by respiratory suppression when the brain stops sending signals to breathe.

Answer 52

Opium Opiates Opioids Heroin; opioid

Question 53

___ are a type of consciousness altering drug that distort reality. An example is ___ ___ ___ (LSD). These drugs dilate pupils, increase heart rate, blood pressure, and temperature and serotonin levels.

Answer 53

Hallucinogenics | Lysergic acid diethylamide

Question 54

___ is a drug that can act as a stimulant, depressant, and a hallucinogen. The active ingredient, ____ (THC), reacts with opioid and glycine receptors. It decreases GABA activity and increases dopamine levels. Symptoms include red eyes, dry mouth, fatigue, increased heart rate and appetite, low blood pressure, impaired short term memory,

Answer 54

Marijuana Tetrahydrocannabinol

Question 55

Drug is addiction is closely related with pathways in the brain. Specially, the ___ ___ ___ uses ___ to create a sense of pleasure. It is normally associated with motivation and emotions, but is also activated when drugs are abused. As a result, a ___ reinforcement cycle starts.

Answer 55

Mesolimbic reward pathway Dopamine Positive

Question 56

The mesolimbic reward pathway uses ___ and includes the following: 1) ___ ___ 2) ___ ___ ___ 3) ___ ___ ___

Answer 56

Dopamine Nucleus Accumbens (NAc); Ventral Tegemental Area (VTA); Medial Forebrain Bundle (MFB)

Question 57

___ is the process of focussing one part of the sensory environment, aka ___. This process can be further split into __ and ___ attention.

Answer 57

Attention Sensorium Selected; Divided

Question 58

The ___ type of attention occurs when one focuses on a part of the ___ and filters out the remaining stimuli. This requires ___ processing. The ‘filter’ acts as on which stimuli is given our attention while the rest is filtered out and processed in the background. It is similar to ___, where we ignore some stimuli to focus on more important ones. If the stimuli is important is it passed as shown with the ___ ___ ___, where one calls your name at a party.

Answer 58

``` Selective Controlled/Effortful Sensorium Adaptation Cocktail party threshold ```

Question 59

___ ___ is the when one is focusing on multiple parts of a sensorium. This is usually done with ___ processing and when one is performing routine or familiar actions. It allows us to do more tasks an but does not allow for rapid response.

Answer 59

Divided attention | Automatic

Question 60

___ allows for communication and is made up for five components: 1) ____ 2) ____ 3) ____ 4) ____ 5) ____

Answer 60

Language ``` Phonology Morphology Semantics Syntax Pragmatic ```

Question 61

___ is a component of language that is based on the sounds of a language. Specific sounds are called ___ that are produced and recognized in speech. Individuals have differentiate when specific sounds differences are important or insignificant to meaning. This practice is called ___ ___. Slight differences of a pronunciation of the same word is an example of auditory ____—the ability to view slightly differences as the same.

Answer 61

Phonology Phonemes Categorical perception Auditory constancy

Question 62

___ is a component of language that refers to building blocks of words or ___. Each ____ or building block has a specific meaning associated with it.

Answer 62

Morphology Morphemes Morpheme

Question 63

___ is a category or language that includes the meanings of words. For example, specific words may refer to entire categories while others refer to one object.

Answer 63

Semantics

Question 64

___ is a language category that is attributed to word order.

Answer 64

Syntax

Question 65

___ is a building block of language and refers to the impact of context and experience on words. For example, where the word is said and who it’s spoken to can alter meaning. This component includes the impact of ___: rhythm, cadence, and inflection associated with each person’s voice.

Answer 65

Pragmatic | Prosody

Question 66

``` Language development follows a pretty standard timeline, which includes the following: 9-12 months: ___ 12 to 18 months: ___ 18-20 months: ___ 2-3 years: ___ 5 years: ___ ```

Answer 66

``` 9-12 months: babbling 12 to 18 months: new word per month 18-20 months: “explosion of language”; 2-3 word sentences 2-3 years: longer sentences 5 years: most language rules mastered ```

Question 67

There are different theories on how children develop their language skills and why they do. Examples include the nativist or ___ theory, the learning or ___ theory, and finally the ___ ___ theory.

Answer 67

Nativist or biological theory Learning or behaviourist theory Social interactionist

Question 68

The ___ or ___ theory on language development was developed by Chomsky. He believed children had a innate ability to learn language because of the ___ ___ ___ (LAD). Chomsky believed the LAD was a pathway in the brain developed for taking in language rules because o this ___ ___ study, where children understood syntax changes effortlessly. Chomsky also believed that the LAD had to be formed during the ___ ___ of 2 years to puberty or else learning a language was ineffective. In reality, there is a more of a ___ ___ of language development.

Answer 68

Nativity or biologist Language acquisition device Transformational grammar Critical period Sensitive period

Question 69

The ___ or ___ theory was developed by Skinner and believed that children learned specific sounds or phonemes because of ___ ___: the idea that children received a response for creating sounds that resembled what their parents made, thereby increasing their behaviour of producing such words. This theory doesn’t account for the explosion of language learned during 18 - 20 months

Answer 69

Behaviour or learning | Positive reinforcement

Question 70

The ___ ___ ___ believes children learn a language because of their desire to communicate in a social manner with friends and family. As a result, the brain undergoes synaptic pruning of certain language connections in the brains while others are enforced through long term potentiation

Answer 70

Socialist interaction theory

Question 71

The ___ hypothesis or the ___ ___ hypothesis believes that language impacts how we think, and our word choices reflect our ability to think in a certain way rather than using language to express our thoughts.

Answer 71

Worfian hypothesis/linguistic relativity hypothesis

Question 72

The ___ ___ is located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe and is responsible for speech production. It connects with the motor cortex. ___ ___ is located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe and is responsible for understanding language. The two areas are connected via the ___ ___.

Answer 72

Broca’s area Wernicke’s area Arcuate fasciculus

Question 73

___ is a condition in which one cannot understand or speak a language. It specific to where the brain is damaged. ___ ___ or ___ ___ is when an individual can understand language but cannot speak. They generally feel like every word is at the tip of their tongue. ___ ___ or ___ ___ is when an individual can speak fluently but with words in random order or made up words. They generally believe they are making sense but cannot be understood by others. ___ ___ is a rare form of brain damage when a person can both speak and understand but cannot repeat words or sentences. It occurs when the ___ is affected.

Answer 73

Aphasia Broca’s aphasia; expressive aphasia Wernicke’s aphasia; receptive aphasia Conduction aphasia; arcuate fasciculus