Chapter 4: Cognition, Consciousness, and Language

Question 1

Cognition

Answer 1

Looks at how our brains process and react to the incredible information overload presented to us by the world.

Question 2

Information Processing model.

Answer 2

1) Thinking requires sensation, encoding, storage of stimuli.

2) Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain to be useful in decision making.

3) Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems.

4) Problem solving is dependent not only on the person’s cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem.

Question 2

Dual coding theory.

Answer 2

States that both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information.

Question 2

Cognitive Development.

Answer 2

Development of one’s ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan.

Question 3

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.

Answer 3

The development of the ability to think abstractly is developed throughout childhood. Divide into lifespan into four stages of cognitive development: Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Question 4

Schema.

Answer 4

Organized patterns of behavior are thought as schemata. They can include a concept, behavior, or a sequence of events.

Question 4

Adaptation

Answer 4

New information is processed. Adaptation to information comes about by two complementary processes: assimilation and accommodation.

Question 5

Accommodation.

Answer 5

Process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new information.

Question 6

Assimilation

Answer 6

Process of classifying new information into existing schemata. Use the new information does not fit needy into existing schemata, then accommodation occurs.

Question 7

Sensorimotor stage.

Answer 7

Starting at birth and lasting until about two years of age. Child learns to manipulate the environment in order to meet physical needs and learns to coordinate sensory input with motor actions. There are two types of behavior patterns called circular reactions.

Primary circular reactions are repetition of body movements that originally occurred by chance, Like sucking on thumb.

Secondary circular reaction, when manipulations should focus on something outside the body, such as repeatedly throwing toys from a high chair.

Question 8

What is the key milestone that ends the sensorimotor stage in the development?

Answer 8

Object permanence, which is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view. Object permanence marks the beginning of representational thought, in which the child has begun to create mental representation of external objects and events.

Question 9

Centration

Answer 9

Tendency to focus only on one aspect of a phenomenon, for example the number of slices in a pizza, while ignoring other important elements.

Question 10

Concrete operational stage.

Answer 10

Last, from about 7 to 11 years of age. In this age, children can understand conversation and consider the perspective of others. They are able to engage in logical thought as long as they are working with concrete objects or information that is directly available. They have not yet developed the ability to think abstractly.

Question 10

Preoperational stage.

Answer 10

Last from about two to seven years of age and is characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism. Symbolic thinking refers to the ability to pertain, play, make believe, and have an imagination. Egocentrism referred to the inability to imagine what another person may think or feel. The inability to grasp the concept of conservation, which is the understanding that physical amount remains the same even if there’s a change in shape or appearance.

Question 11

Role of culture in cognitive development.

Answer 11

Cognitive development is very much related to culture, as one’s culture will determine what one is expected to learn. Lev Vigodsky Propose that the engine driving cognitive development in children’s internalization of their culture, including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language.

Question 12

Formal operational stage.

Answer 12

Starts around 11 years of age and is marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas.

Question 13

Fluid intelligence.

Answer 13

Consist of solving newer novel problems, possibly using creative methods. Figuring out how to navigate through a new video game world.

Question 14

Crystallized Intelligence.

Answer 14

Is more related to solving problems using an acquired knowledge and often can be procedural.

Question 15

What forms higher level of intellectual performance?

Answer 15

Higher level of education, more frequent performance of intellectual activities, socializing, and a simulating environment have been found to protect against intellectual decline.

Question 16

Dementia

Answer 16

Disorders and conditions. They are characterized by a general loss of cognitive functions. Alzheimer’s disease account for approximately 60 to 80% of all Dementia cases.

Question 17

Heredity, environment, and biological factors.

Answer 17

Actual problems with the brain itself, genetic and chromosomal conditions, metabolic derangements, and long term drug use. The environment can also affect both cognitive development and day-to-day cognition. Parity styles may influence cognitive development, and genetics can predispose to a state that may make cognitive development difficult. Intellectual disabilities in children can also be caused by chemical exposure, illness, injury, or trauma during birth. Alcohol use during pregnancy can cause fetal alcohol Syndrome.

Question 18

Delirium

Answer 18

Rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes.

Question 19

Functional fixedness.

Answer 19

The inability to consider how to use an object in a non traditional manner.

Question 20

Mental set.

Answer 20

Tendency to approach similar problems in the same way.

Question 21

Types of problem solving.

Answer 21

Trial and error. Algorithms. Deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning.

Question 22

Trial and error.

Answer 22

Less sophisticated type of problem solving in which various solutions are tried until one is found to that seems to work. It is only effective when there are relatively few possible solutions.

Question 23

Algorithm

Answer 23

Is a formula procedure for solving a certain type of problem. Algorithms can be mathematical or set of instructions, designed to automatically produce the desired solution.

Question 24

Deductive reasoning.

Answer 24

Starts from a set of our general rules and draws conclusions from the information given. Only one possible solution can be deducted based on the information given.

Question 25

Inductive reasoning.

Answer 25

Seeks to create a theory via generalizations. This type of reasoning starts with specific instances, and then draws a conclusion from them.

Question 26

Heuristics

Answer 26

Simplified principles used to make decisions; They are colloquially called rules of thumb.

Question 27

Availability Heuristics

Answer 27

Use when we base the likelihood of an event on how easily examples of that may come to mind. Often the use of this leads to a correct decision, but not always. As an example, answered the following question, are there more words in English language that start with the letter K or the half K as their third letter?

Question 28

Disconfirmation principle.

Answer 28

The evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work. When a potential solution to a problem fails during testing the solution should be discarded.

Question 29

Representativeness Heuristics

Answer 29

Involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of that category.

Question 30

Base rate fallacy.

Answer 30

Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information.

Question 31

Confirmation bias.

Answer 31

Tendency to focus on information that fits an individual's belief, while rejecting information that goes against them.

Question 32

Overconfidence.

Answer 32

Tendency to erroneously interpret ones decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible.

Question 33

Hindsight bias.

Answer 33

Tendency for people to overestimate their ability to predict the outcome of events that already happened.

Question 34

Belief Perseverance.

Answer 34

Inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary.

Question 35

Intuition

Answer 35

Can be defined as the ability to act on perception that may not be supported by available evidence.

Question 36

Recognition primed decision model.

Answer 36

When a person's brain is actually sorting through a wide variety of information to match a pattern.

Question 37

Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence.

Answer 37

One of the most all-encompassing different nations with at least eight defined types of intelligence: Linguistic, logical, mathematical, musical, visual spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, interpersonal, and naturalist.

Question 37

Emotion

Answer 37

Subjective experience of a person in a certain situation.

Question 38

Interpersonal Intelligence.

Answer 38

Ability to detect and navigate the moods and motivation of others.

Question 39

Robert Sternberg Studied how people use their intelligence.

Answer 39

Analytical Intelligence: Involves the ability to evaluate and reason. Creative Intelligence: Ability to solve problems using novel methods. Practical Intelligence: Involves dealing with everyday problems at home where I work.

Question 40

Emotional intelligence.

Answer 40

Addresses are emotional awareness in four components: The ability to express and perceive emotions in our self and others, The ability to comprehend and analyze our emotions, The ability to regulate our emotions, and when awareness of how emotions shape our thoughts and decisions.

Question 41

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Answer 41

Underlying variable of intelligence is often measured with standardized tests.

Question 42

How is IQ measured?

Answer 42

IQ = mental age / chronological age x 100%

Question 42

What causes variations in intellectual ability?

Answer 42

Genes, environment, and educational experiences. Parental expectations, socioeconomic status, and attrition have all been shown to correlate with intelligence.

Question 43

Consciousness

Answer 43

Level of awareness of both the world and one’s own existence within that world.

Question 44

States of consciousness.

Answer 44

Alertness, sleep, dreaming and altered states of consciousness

Question 45

Alertness

Answer 45

State of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think. In this state we are able to perceive, process, access, and verbalize information.

Question 45

Physiological Arousal

Answer 45

Characterized by physiological reactions such as increased heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, and so on.

Question 46

Reticular formation.

Answer 46

Fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with the reticular formation and neuron structure located in the brainstem, to keep the cortex awake and alert.

Question 47

electroencephalogram (EEG)

Answer 47

Recording brain wave activity occurring during the course of the night's sleep. Records an average of electrical patterns within different portions of the brain. There are four different stages of waking and sleeping: Beta, alpha, Theta, and delta waves.

Question 47

Beta waves.

Answer 47

Have a high frequency and occur when the person's alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration. He occurs when the neurons are randomly firing.

Question 48

Alpha waves.

Answer 48

when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed, and are somewhat slower than beta waves.

Question 49

Stage 1 of sleep, also known as (NREM1)

Answer 49

Appearance of Theta waves. It has irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltage.

Question 50

Stage 2 (NREM2)

Answer 50

Shows data waves along with sleep pandals, which are bursts of high frequency waves, and K complexes, which are singular high amplitude waves.

Question 51

Stage 3 (NREM3)

Answer 51

It is also known as slow wave sleep (SWS). These low frequency, high voltage sleep waves are called delta waves. It becomes very difficult to awake someone in this sleep stage.

Question 51

Non Rapid eye Movement sleep Acronym?

Answer 51

NREM

Question 52

rapid eye movement REM sleep

Answer 52

Arousal levels reached out of weakness, but the muscles are paralyzed. It is also called paradoxical sleep because ones heart rate, breathing patterns and EE G mimic wakefulness but the individuals still asleep. R.E.M. dreams tend to be longer and more vivid than those experienced during an NR.E.M. sleep.

Question 53

Sleep cycle.

Answer 53

a single, complete progression through the sleep stages.

Question 53

Length of sleep throughout life.

Answer 53

Over the life span, the length of the sleep cycle increases from approximately 15 minutes in children to 90 minutes in adults. Children also spend more time in the SWS than adults. Disruption of SWS in REM can result in diminished memory.

Question 54

Circadian Rhythms.

Answer 54

Our daily cycle of waking and sleeping is regulated by internally generated rhythms. This freedom is approximately a 24 hour cycle that is somewhat affected by external cues such as light.

Question 55

Melatonin

Answer 55

A serotonin derived hormone from the pineal gland that is released for sleepiness.

Question 55

Retina

Answer 55

Decreasing lighting caused the release of melatonin. The decreasing light comes from the retina closing their eyes.

Question 56

Cortisol

Answer 56

A steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex. Increasing light causes the release of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) from the hypothalamus. CRF causes the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Which stimulates cortisol release that contributes to wakefulness.

Question 57

Activation synthesis theory.

Answer 57

Dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuity. This activation can mimic Incoming sensory information, It may also consist of pieces of stored memories, current and previous desires, met and unmet needs, and other experiences. The cortex then tries to stitch this from related information together.

Question 57

Problem solving dream theory.

Answer 57

Dreams are a way to solve problems while you were sleeping.

Question 58

Cognitive Process Dream Theory

Answer 58

Dreams are merely the sleeping counterparts of a stream of consciousness.

Question 59

Neurocognitive models of dreaming.

Answer 59

Seek to unify biological physiological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subject, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes.

Question 60

Sleep-wake disorders.

Answer 60

Are divided into two categories: Dyssomnias and parasomnias. Most sleep wake disorders occur during NREM sleep.

Question 60

Dyssomnias

Answer 60

refer to disorders That make it difficult to fall asleep, stay awake, or avoid sleep and include insomnia, narcolepsy and sleep apnea.

Question 61

Parasomnias

Answer 61

abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep, and include night terrors and sleepwalking.

Question 61

Insomnia

Answer 61

Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep. It is the most common sleep weight disorder.

Question 62

Narcolepsy

Answer 62

Condition characterized by the lack a voluntary control over onset of sleep. The symptoms of narcolepsy are unique and include cataplexy, a loss of muscle control insert intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger.

Question 63

Sleep paralysis.

Answer 63

Sensation of being unable to move to spy being awake.

Question 64

Hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucination.

Answer 64

Hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening.

Question 65

Sleep apnea.

Answer 65

Inability to breathe during sleep. Obstructive sleep apnea occurs when a physical blockage in the trachea prevents airflow. Central sleep apnea occurs when the brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe.

Question 66

Night terrors.

Answer 66

Most common in children, are periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow wave sleep.

Question 66

Sleepwalking

Answer 66

Usually occur in SWS. Some people who sleepwalk may eat, talk, and have sexual intercourse or even drive.

Question 67

Sleep deprivation.

Answer 67

Can result from a little was one night without sleep, or from multiple nights with poor quality sleep. Extreme deprivation can cause psychosis. After sleep deprivation, often exhibit REM rebound, an earlier onset, and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal.

Question 68

Hypnosis

Answer 68

Can be defined as a state in which a person appears to be in control of normal functions, but is in a highly suggestible state. Hypnosis starts with the hypnotic induction, which is a relaxed subject and increase the subject's level of concentration.

Question 69

Meditation.

Answer 69

Usually involves quieting of the mind for some purpose, whether spiritual, religious, or related to stress reduction. On EEG meditation resemble stage 1 sleep with theta and slow alpha waves.

Question 69

Consciousness altering drugs.

Answer 69

There are four different groups: Depressants, stimulants, opiates, and hallucinogens.

Question 70

Depressants

Answer 70

Reduce nervous system activity resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety. An example is alcohol and sedatives, which calm and induce sleep.

Question 70

Alcohol

Answer 70

Increased activity of GABA Receptor. There's a lack of self-control known as disinhibition, which occurs because the centers of the brain that prevent inappropriate behavior are also depressed. Alcohol also increases dopamine levels, causing a sense of mild euphoria. Bring disorder commonly known from alcoholism is the Warnicke-Korsakoff syndrome.

Question 71

Alcohol Myopia.

Answer 71

Inability to recognize consequences of actions.

Question 72

What is GABA?

Answer 72

Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Question 73

Sedatives

Answer 73

Tend to depress central nervous system activity, resulting in a feeling of calm, relaxation and drowsiness. Two types of sedatives are barbiturates and benzodiazepines. These drugs also increase GBA activity, causing a sense of relaxation. Overdosing with this could cause, or death.

Question 73

Stimulants

Answer 73

Causing increasing row though in the nervous system. Each drug increases the frequency of an actual potential, but with different mechanisms.

Question 74

Amphetamine

Answer 74

Cause increase arousal by increasing release of dopamine, norepinephrine And serotonin at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake. This increases arousal and causes a reduction in appetite and decrease need for sleep. Hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions or grandeur, and paranoia are common effects. It can result in stroke or brain damage, and people suffer from withdrawal after discontinuation.

Question 75

Cocaine

Answer 75

Cocaine also acts on dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin synapses, But cocaine decreases reuptake of the neurotransmitters instead. Cocaine also has anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties. Crack is a form of cocaine that can be smoked.

Question 75

Ecstasy

Answer 75

Commonly called “E”, Acts as a hallucinogen combined with amphetamine. Causes feeling of Ophelia, increased alertness, and an overwhelming sense of well-being and connectedness.

Question 76

Opiates and opioids.

Answer 76

Types of narcotics, also known as being healers. They are from the poppy plant Opium. Naturally occurring forms called opiates include morphine and codeine. Semi synthetic derivatives called opioids include oxycodone, hydrocodone. Overdose, however, can cause death by respiratory suppression.

Question 77

Heroin

Answer 77

Was originally created as substitute for morphine. Once injected, the body rapidly metabolizes heroin to morphine.

Question 78

Hallucinogens

Answer 78

Are drugs with chemically cause introspection, distortions of reality and fantasy and enhancement of sensory experiences. Examples of hallucinogens include lysergic acid dimethylamine (LSD).

Question 78

Marijuana

Answer 78

Primarily for to the leaves and flowers of two plant species, Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica. The active chemical in Marijuana is known as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). THC inhibits GABA activity and indirectly increases dopamine activity causing pleasure. Physiologically, affects seem to fall into the categories of stimulant, depressant and hallucinogen. Common side effects are: Red eyes, dry mouth, Fatigue and impairment of short term memory.

Question 79

Drug addiction.

Answer 79

Highly related to the mesolimbic reward pathway, one of four dopaminergic pathways in the brain. This pathway includes the nucleus accumbens, the ventral tegmental area, and the connection between them called the medial forebrain bundle. Lisbeth ways normally involved in motivation and emotional responses, and its activation accounts for the positive reinforcement of substance use. Gambling and falling in love have the same pathway.

Question 80

Attention

Answer 80

Refers to concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment or sensorium.

Question 80

Selective attention.

Answer 80

Focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli. It therefore acts as a filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems. Selective attention is probably more of a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background. Only if the other stimuli are particularly important do we shift our attention to them.

Question 81

Cocktail party phenomenon.

Answer 81

You're talking to a friend in a party. However, you're yours broke up when you hear your name spoken halfway across the room.

Question 82

Dichotic listening tests.

Answer 82

Are designed to test selective attention.

Question 82

Divided attention.

Answer 82

Ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time period. Most newer complex tasks require undivided attention and utilize controlled processing. In contrast, familiar routine actions can be performed with automatic processing, which permits the brain to focus on other tasks with the divided attention.

Question 82

Language

Answer 82

There are five components of language: Phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics.

Question 83

Phonology.

Answer 83

Refers to the actual sound of language.

Question 84

Categorical Perception.

Answer 84

When a language has subtle differences in speech sound that represents a changing meaning, children learn to distinguish those phonemes.

Question 84

Constancy

Answer 84

Ability to recognize a word as being the same, even if the pronunciation of the word varies between people.

Question 85

Morphology.

Answer 85

Refers to the structure of words. Many words are composed of multiple building blocks called morphemes, Each of which connotes a particular meaning.

Question 85

Semantics

Answer 85

Refer to the association of meaning with the word. One can see the skill developing in young children as they may refer to all animals doggy.

Question 86

Syntax

Answer 86

Referred to how words are put together to form sentences.

Question 86

Language development.

Answer 86

The precursor to language is babbling. It begins during their first year and babbling reaches its highest frequency, between 9 and 12 months.

Question 87

Pragmatics

Answer 87

Refers to the dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge.

Question 88

Prosody

Answer 88

The rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices.

Question 89

Timeline of language acquisition.

Answer 89

From 9 to 12 months: Babbling. From 12 to 18 months: About one word per month. From 18 to 20 months: Explosion of language and combining words. From two to three years: Longer sentences, 3 words or more. Five years +: Language rules largely mastered.

Question 90

Overextension

Answer 90

Inappropriately apply a term to an object that bears cursory similarities to them.

Question 91

Errors of growth.

Answer 91

Child applies a grammatical rule in the situation where it does not apply.

Question 92

Nativist (Biological) theory.

Answer 92

Largely credited to linguist, Noam Chomsly, advocates for the existence of some innate capacity for learning. Chomsly He's known for his study on transformational grammar. He noted that children learn to make such transformations effortless and early age. He therefore concluded that disability must be innate in history. This innate ability is called the language acquisition device (LAD) a theoretical pathway in the brain that. Allows infants to process and absorb language rules.

Question 93

Critical Period

Answer 93

Language acquisition between two years and puberty.

Question 94

Sensitive period

Answer 94

Is it time when environmental input has maximum effect on the development of an ability.

Question 95

Learning (Behaviorist) theory.

Answer 95

Explain language acquisition by apparent conditioning. By 6 months of age, show a strong preference for phenemes in language spoken by their parents. Language acquisition by reinforcement.

Question 95

Social interactionist theory.

Answer 95

Focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes. Child's desire to communicate and behave in the social manner. As the biological foundation for language develops in children exposed to language, the brain group sounds and meanings together.

Question 96

Influence of language on cognition.

Answer 96

The Whorfian Hypothesis, Also called the linguistic relativity hypothesis Suggests they are perception of reality. The way we think about the world is determined by the content of language.

Question 97

Brocas area.

Answer 97

Located in the inferior from the gyrus of the frontal lobe, controls the motor function of speech via connections with the motor cortex.

Question 98

Wernicke’s area

Answer 98

Located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe, is responsible for language comprehension.

Question 99

Arcuate fasciculus.

Answer 99

It is where Brocas area and Wernicke’s area are connected. A bundle of axons that allow appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production.

Question 100

Aphasia

Answer 100

Deficit of language production or comprehension.

Question 101

Wernicke’s (Receptive) aphasia.

Answer 101

Motor production and fluency of speech is retained by comprehension of speech is lost. Speak nonsensical sounds and inappropriate word combinations.

Question 102

Broca’s (expressive) Aphasia.

Answer 102

Reduced or absent ability to produce spoken language. Often very frustrated because they are stuck with the sensation of having every word at the tip of their tongue.

Question 103

Conduction of Aphasia

Answer 103

Arcuate fasciculus is affected. Patients are unable to repeat something that has been said because the connection between these two regions has been lost.