Chapter 3: Learning and Memory.

Question 1

Learning

Answer 1

Refer specifically to the way in which we acquire new behaviors. To understand learning, we must start with the concept of a stimulus. A stimulus can be defined as anything to which an Organism can respond.

Question 2

Habituation

Answer 2

Repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decrease in response.

Question 2

Dishabituation

Answer 2

The recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred. It is noted when late in the habituation of a stimulus, a second stimulus is presented. Note that the term refers to changes in response to the original stimulus, not the new one.

Question 3

Subthreshold.

Answer 3

Stimulus too weak to elicit a response.

Question 4

Classical conditioning.

Answer 4

Type of associate learning takes advantage of biological, instinctual responses to create associations between 2 unrelated stimuli. Ivan Pavlov was the one who studied this.

Question 5

Associative Learning.

Answer 5

Creation of pairing, or association, either between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response. There are two types of associative learning: Classical and operant conditioning.

Question 6

Unconditional stimulus.

Answer 6

Reflective response, like a dog salivating when he sees meat.

Question 7

Unconditioned response.

Answer 7

Innate or reflective response

Question 8

Neutral stimuli.

Answer 8

Do not produce a reflective response.

Question 9

Conditioned stimulus.

Answer 9

A normally neutral stimulus that, through association, now causes a reflective response called the conditioned response.

Question 10

Acquisition

Answer 10

The process of using a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus.

Question 11

Extinction

Answer 11

Refers to the loss of a conditioned response, and can occur if the condition stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Question 12

Spontaneous recovery.

Answer 12

After some time, presenting subjects again with the extinct condition stimulus will sometimes produce a weak condition response

Question 13

Generalization

Answer 13

Broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the condition stimulus can also produce this condition response.

Question 14

Stimuli discrimination, also referred to as just discrimination.

Answer 14

An Organism learns to distinguish between similar stimuli. For example, a dog being able to discriminate between bells of different tones.

Question 15

Operant conditioning.

Answer 15

Examines the way in which consequences of voluntary behaviors change in frequency of those behaviors.

Question 16

Behaviorism

Answer 16

Theory that all behaviors are conditioned.

Question 17

Reward seeking behaviors.

Answer 17

All animals will innately search for resources in their environment.

Question 18

Reinforcement

Answer 18

The process of increasing the likelihood that an animal will perform a behavior.

Question 19

Positive reinforcement.

Answer 19

Increases the frequency of behavior by adding a positive consequences or incentive following the desired behavior. Example would be getting money after working.

Question 19

Escape learning.

Answer 19

Describe the situation where the animal experiences the unpleasant stimulus and, in response. Display the desired behavior in order to trigger the removal of the stimulus.

Question 20

Negative reinforcement.

Answer 20

They increase the frequency of a behavior, but they do so by removing something unpleasant. Example would be taking aspirin to reduce a headache.

Any reinforcement, positive or negative, increases the likelihood that a behavior will perform.

Question 21

Avoidance learning.

Answer 21

Occurs when the animal displays the desired behavior in anticipation of the unpleasant stimulus, thereby avoiding the unpleasant stimulus. An example is putting the seat belt before it beeps.

Question 22

Primary reinforcer.

Answer 22

In the example with the dog, meat would be the primary reinforcer because it’s a treat that the dog responds to naturally.

Question 23

Conditioned reinforcer

Answer 23

Would be the clicker.

Question 24

Punishment

Answer 24

Use this conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behavior.

Question 25

Negative punishment.

Answer 25

Removing a stimulus in order to cause reduction of a behavior. Example is a parent forbiting the kid from watching TV as a consequence of bad behavior.

Question 25

Positive reinforcement.

Answer 25

Add an unpleasant consequence in response to our behavior to reduce their behavior. You can also be called aversive conditioning. An example would be receiving a ticket and having to pay a fine for parking illegally.

Question 26

Reinforcement schedule.

Answer 26

Rate at which desired behaviors are acquired It's also affected by the reinforcement schedule. Whether the schedule is fixed or variable, and whether the schedule is based on a ratio or interval.

Question 27

Fixed ratio schedules.

Answer 27

Reinforce the behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior. Continuous reinforcement is a fixed ratio schedule in which the behavior is rewarded every time it is performed.

Question 28

Variable ratio schedules.

Answer 28

Reinforce the behavior after varying number of performances of that behavior, but such that the average number of performances to receive a reward is relatively constant. He has the fastest response rate.

Question 29

Fixed Interval schedules.

Answer 29

Reinforce the first instance of behavior after a specific time period has elapsed. Next, schedules often have a brief moment of no response after the behavior is reinforced.

Question 30

Variable interval schedules.

Answer 30

Reinforce the behavior the first time that behavior is performed after viewing interval of time.

Question 31

Shaping

Answer 31

Process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors that become closer to a desired behavior.

Question 32

Latent learning.

Answer 32

Learning occurs without a reward, but that is spontaneously demonstrated once the reward is introduced.

Question 33

Problem solving.

Answer 33

Many animals will also use this kind of trial and error approach, testing behaviors until they yield the reward.

Question 34

Preparedness

Answer 34

Many animals are predisposed to learn behaviors based on their own natural abilities and instincts. Animals are most able to learn behaviors that coincide with their natural behaviors.

Question 35

Instinctive or instinctual drift

Answer 35

When animals refer to an extinctive behavior after learning a new behavior that is similar.

Question 36

observational learning.

Answer 36

The process of learning a new behavior or learning information by watching others. It was tested by Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment. Where children would see adults being aggressive towards the Bobo doll and would imitate that behavior. This type of learning can be used to teach individuals to avoid behavior as well.

Question 37

Mirror neurons.

Answer 37

Are located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire boats. When an individual performs an action and then the individual observes someone else performing that action. Some mirror neurons fire both when we experience an emotion and also when we observe another experiencing the same emotion.

Question 38

Modeling

Answer 38

People learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them.

Question 39

Encoding

Answer 39

Refers to the process of putting new information into memory.

Question 39

Automatic processing.

Answer 39

Information gained without any effort.

Question 40

Control processing.

Answer 40

Active memorization

Question 41

Different ways that we can encode.

Answer 41

1)Visual Encoding. 2) Acoustic encoding. 3) Elaborative encoding: Knowledge that is already in memory. 4) Semantic encoding: Put it into a meaningful context. Semantic encoding is the best one.

Question 42

Self reference effect.

Answer 42

We tend to recall information best when we can put it into the context of our own lives.

Question 42

Maintenance rehearsal.

Answer 42

The repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory or to store it in short term and eventually long term memory.

Question 43

Mnemonics

Answer 43

How often acronyms or rhythm phrases that provide a vivid organization of the information we're trying to learn.

Question 44

Method of loci

Answer 44

Involves associating each terminal list with the location along route through a building that has already been memorized.

Question 45

Peg word system.

Answer 45

Associate numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers.

Question 46

Chunking or clustering

Answer 46

Memory trick that involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning.

Question 47

Sensory memory.

Answer 47

Preserves information in its original sensory form with high accuracy and last only a very short time. It consists both of iconic memory (Fast decaying memory of visual stimuli) and echoic memory (Fast decaying memory of auditory stimuli).

Question 48

Whole report.

Answer 48

When asked to list all of the letters in our array, the participant is able to correctly identify three or four.

Question 49

Partial report.

Answer 49

When asked to list the letters of a particular row immediately after the presentation of the stimulus. The participants can do so with 100% accuracy, no matter which role is chosen.

Question 50

Short term memory.

Answer 50

Fades quickly, over the course of approximately 30 seconds without rehearsal. The number of items we can hold in our short term memory at a given time, our memory capacity is limited to approximately 7 items. It is housed primarily in the hippocampus, which is also responsible for the consolidation of short term memory into long term memory.

Question 51

Working memory.

Answer 51

Closely related to short term memory and is similarly Supported by the hippocampus. He enables us to keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness simultaneously, and to manipulate the information. One must integrate short term memory, attention, and executive function. This is what allows us to do math in our heads.

Question 51

Long term memory.

Answer 51

With enough rehearsal, information moves from short term to long term memory, and essentially limitless warehouse for knowledge that we are then able to recall on demand. It is primarily controlled by the hippocampus, It should be noted that memories are moved over time back to the cerebral cortex. There are two types of long term memory: Implicit memory and explicit memory.

Question 52

Elaborative rehearsal.

Answer 52

Information is consolidated into long term memory. It is the association of the information to knowledge already stored in long term memory.

Question 53

Implicit memory also called non declarative memory.

Answer 53

Consist of our skills, habits, and condition responses, none of which need to be conscious recalled. It includes procedural memory, which relates to our unconscious memory of the skills required to complete a procedural task. In priming, which involves the presentation of 1 stimulus affecting perception of a second period. Positive priming occurs when exposure to the first stimulus improved processing for the second stimulus. Negative priming the first stimulus interferes with the processing of the 2nd stimulus.

Question 54

Explicit memory, also called declarative memory.

Answer 54

Consists of those memories that require conscious recall. It can be further divided into episodic memory and semantic memory.

Question 55

Episodic memory.

Answer 55

Refers to our recollection of life experiences.

Question 55

Semantic memory.

Answer 55

Refers to ideas, concepts, or facts that we know, but are not tied to specific life experiences.

Question 56

Autobibliographical memory.

Answer 56

Name given to our explicit memories of our lives and ourselves.

Question 57

Retrieval

Answer 57

Name given to the process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained. Retrieval in terms of recall.

Question 58

Recognition

Answer 58

The process of merely notifying a piece of information that was previously learned, is far easier than recall.

Question 59

Relearning.

Answer 59

It's another way of demonstrating the information has been stored in long term memory.

Question 60

Spacing effect.

Answer 60

The longer the amount of time between sessions of relearning, the greater the retention of the information later on.

Question 61

Semantic Network.

Answer 61

Concepts are linked together based on similar meaning, not unlike an Internet encyclopedia where each page includes link for similar topics.

Question 62

Spreading activation.

Answer 62

When one note over semantic network is activated, such as seeing the word red on a sign, the other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated.

Question 63

Context effect.

Answer 63

Where memories aided by being in the physical location wearing coating took place. Psychologists have shown a person will score better when they take an exam in the same room in which they learn the information.

Question 64

Source monitoring.

Answer 64

Part of the retrieval process that involves determining the origin of memories, and then whether they are factual or fictional.

Question 65

State dependent memory.

Answer 65

Retrieval cue based on performing better when the same mental state as when the information was learned.

Question 66

Serial position effect.

Answer 66

An items position in the list affects sports disciplines ability to recall. The tendency to remember early and late items in the list is known as the primacy and recency effect, respectively. Psychologists interpret this to mean that the residency effect is a result of the last items still being in short term memory on initial recall.

Question 67

Amnesia.

Answer 67

Significant loss of memorized information.

Question 68

Source amnesia.

Answer 68

The inability to remember where, when, or how one has obtained knowledge.

Question 69

Alzheimer's disease.

Answer 69

Degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of acetylchloride in neurons that link to the hippocampus. It is marked by progressive dementia, which is a loss of cognitive function and memory loss with atrophy of brain. Sundowning is increased in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening.

Question 70

Korsakoff syndrome.

Answer 70

Another form of memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain. It is marked by retrograde amnesia, (the loss of previously formed memories) and anterograde amnesia. (the inability to form new memories). Another common symptom is confabulation, or the process of creating vivid both fabricated memories, typically thought to be an attempt made by the brain to fill in the gaps of missing memories.

Question 71

Agnosia

Answer 71

Loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds. Though usually only one of the three.

Question 72

Decay

Answer 72

Memories are simply lost naturally over time as the neurochemical traits of a short term memory fades.

Question 73

Interference

Answer 73

It is also referred to as an interference effect. A retrieval error caused by the existence of other, usually similar information. Proactive interference, all the information is interfering with new learning. For example, A new address having to be learned, however you really remember the first address. Retroactive interference Is when new information causes forgetting of old information. For example, in the beginning of the school year, teachers are learning new set of students names.

Question 74

Prospective memory.

Answer 74

Remembering to perform a task at some point in the future remains mostly intact when it is event based.

Question 75

Time based prospective memory.

Answer 75

It declined with age.

Question 75

Reproductive memory.

Answer 75

Accurate recall of past events.

Question 76

Reconstructive memory.

Answer 76

Cognitive processes such as imagination, semantic memory, and perception affect the act of remembering.

Question 76

False memory.

Answer 76

A memory that incorrectly recalls actual events or recalls events that never occurred.

Question 77

Misinformation effect.

Answer 77

Where persons recall of an event becomes less accurate due to the injection of an outside information into the memory.

Question 77

Intrusion errors.

Answer 77

Refers to false memories that have included a false detailing to a particular memory. It is injected into the original memory due to both memories being related or sharing a theme.

Question 78

Recovered memories.

Answer 78

They are repressed memories, memories, stored in the unconscious mind and blocked from recall.

Question 79

Synaptic pruning.

Answer 79

As we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of our brains ability to process information.

Question 79

Source monitoring error.

Answer 79

Involves confusion between semantic and episodic memory. A person's remembering the details on an event, but confuses the contexts under which those events were gained.

Question 79

Neuroplasticity

Answer 79

As our brains develop, neural connections form rapidly in response to music stimuli via a phenomenon called neuroplasticity. Brains of young children are so plastic that they can reorganized drastically in response to injury.

Question 80

Synaptic Cleft.

Answer 80

The gap between the neuron and a target cell.

Question 81

Long term Potentiation.

Answer 81

The straining of newer connections through repeated use. Is believed to be neuropsychological basis of long term memory.