Chapter 4- Cognition Consciousness And Language Flashcards
Dual coding theory
The theory that both verbal Association of visual images are used to process and store information
What are the four stages of Piaget stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor (birth-2): Key milestone and sensorimotor stage of the development of object permanence
Preoperational (2-7) Characterized by symbolic thinking egocentrism and centration
Concrete operational (7-11) Children understand conservation, consider the perspective of others are able to think logically as long as they are working with concrete objects or information have not yet developed the ability to think abstractly
Formal operational (11+) Marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas
Schema
A concept, behavior, or sequence of events that helps organize new information
What is adaptation and what are the two complementary processes
A way to process new information.
Assimilation: the process of classifying new information into existing schemata.
Accommodation: the process by which existing schema are modified to encompass new information
Circular Reactions
Primary circular reactions are the repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance
Secondary circular reactions occur when manipulation is focused on something else outside of the body
Occurs during the first stage (sensorimotor) of piagets stages of cognitive development
Object permanence
 The key milestone that ends the sensorimotor stage. The ability to understand objects continue to exist even went out of view.
Symbolic thinking
The ability to play make-believe and exercise imagination
Key part of the preoperational stage of cognitive development
Egocentrism
 The inability to imagine what another person may think or feel
Centration
The tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon.
Example number versus size of slices of pizza
Fluid intelligence
Problem solving skills
Peaks in early adulthood
Crystallized intelligence
Use of a learned skill or knowledge. Peaks in middle adulthood
Delirium
A rapid fluctuation and cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes such as electrolyte and pH disturbance malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal
Functional fixedness
The inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner
What are four different approaches to problem-solving?
Trial and error, algorithms, deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning
Trial and error
A less sophisticated type of problem solving often used when there are relatively few possible solutions. Trying various solutions until one is found this seems to work.
Algorithms
Formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem.
Can be either mathematical or a set of instructions designed to automatically produce the desired solution.
Deductive reasoning
Also known as top-down reasoning.
Start from a general set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given.
General ➡️ Specific
Inductive reasoning
Bottom-up reasoning
Creating a theory based on generalizations start with specifics and then draw a conclusion.
Detailed➡️General
Heuristics
Simplified principles used to make a decisions also known as rules of thumb
Availability heuristic
Making decision based on how easily similar instances it can be imagined.
Representativeness heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of an event by comparing it to an existing prototype that already exists in our minds.
Base rate fallacy
Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information
Confirmation bias
The tendency to focus on information that fits an individuals beliefs while rejecting information that goes against them.
Belief perseverance
The inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary
Recognition prime decision model
Intuition.
Sorting through a wider variety of information to match a pattern
What brain structures are involved in the state of alertness
The prefrontal cortex at the very front of the brain communicating with the reticular formation in the brain stem.
Brain the injury that results in disruption of these connections results in a coma.
In the sleep stages a complete cycle last how many minutes?
90
Beta waves
High frequency. When a person is alert and complaining at mental task that requires concentration.
Alpha waves
Occur when an individual is awake but relaxing with their eyes closed alpha waves are slower and more synchronized than beta waves.
Stage one of the sleep cycle is characterized by which waves
Stage one of the sleep cycle is characterized by theta waves.
Stage two of the sleep cycle is characterized by what type of waves?
Theta waves as well as sleep spindles and K complexes
What stages of the sleep cycle are characterized as slow wave sleep?
Stages three and four
What are characteristics of stages three and four of the sleep cycle? What waves are associated with stages three and four?
Harder to wake someone from their sleep.
Low frequency, high voltage waves called delta waves.
Cognitive recovery and memory consolidation growth hormone release.
What is REM sleep? What EEG waves are associated with rem sleep?
Mostly beta waves
Rapid eye movement sleep.
Interspersed between the cycles of NREM sleep stages.
When dreaming occurs.
Also known as paradoxical sleep because heart rate breathing patterns and EEG mimic wakefulness but the individual still asleep.
Procedural memory consolidation is associated with what part of the sleep cycle.
Declarative memory consolidation is associated with what part of the sleep cycle
Procedural:REM
Declarative:SWS (stages 3 and 4)
Daily sleep wake cycle is regulated by what?
Internally generated circadian rhythms.
What hormone is associated with regulation of sleepiness?
Connection to the retina
Melatonin from the pineal gland.
The retina is connected to the hypothalamus which controls the pineal gland thus decreasing light can cause the release of melatonin
What role does cortisol play in the sleep wake cycle?
Cortisol is a steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex. Cortisol level slowly increase during the early morning due to a series of events triggered by light that eventually stimulates cortisol release.
Dyssomnias versus parasomnias
Dyssomnia’s make it difficult for an individual to fall asleep stay asleep or avoid sleep including insomnia, narcolepsy and sleep apnea.
Parasomnias or abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep including night terrors and sleepwalking.
Most sleep wake disorders occur during non-REM sleep or REM sleep?
NREM
Insomnia
Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep
Narcolepsy
Lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep
Includes cataplexy loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours usually caused by emotional trigger
Sleep paralysis
A sensation of being unable to move despite being awake
Hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations
Hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening
Sleep apnea
An inability to breathe during sleep.
Can either be obstructive or central obstructive sleep apnea occurs when a physical blockage in the pharynx or trachea prevents airflow.
Central sleep apnea occurs when the brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe.
Night Terrors
Periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow wave sleep
Sleepwalking or somnambulism
Occurs during SWS. Walking eating talking having sexual intercourse or driving great distances while sleeping with no recollection of the event
Hypnosis
A state in which a person appears to be in control of his or her normal functions but is in a highly suggestible state
Meditation
Quieting the mind for some purpose whether spiritual religious or for counseling or psychotherapy because it produces a sense of relaxation and relief from anxiety and worry
Resemble stage one sleep with data and slow alpha waves
What EEG waves are associated with being awake
Beta and alpha
Depressant
Reduce nervous system activity resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety. Alcohol is the most common.
Alcohol
A type of depressant. Increases dopamine levels which caused mild sense of euphoria.
Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines
Anxiety reducing and sleep medication
Increase GABA of relaxation.
Benzodiazepines are less prone to overdose.
Stimulants
Cause an increase in arousal in the nervous system.
Examples include amphetamines and cocaine and ecstasy
Amphetamines
Cause increased arousal by increasing release of dopamine norepinephrine and serotonin at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake
Cocaine
Decreases reuptake of dopamine norepinephrine and serotonin.
Has anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties.
Ecstasy
Acts as a hallucinogen as well as an amphetamine.
Causes increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, blurry vision, sweating nausea and hypothermia.
Causes feelings of euphoria increased alertness and an overwhelming sense of well-being and connectedness
Opiates/Opiods
Bind to opioid receptors in the peripheral and central nervous system causing a decrease reaction to pain in a sense of euphoria
A number of drugs derived from opiates include morphine, codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin
Heroin
Also known as diacetylmorphine originally created as a substitute for morphine. Once injected the body metabolizes heroin into morphine.
Hallucinogens
Examples?
How does it exert its effects?
Include drugs such as LSD, ketamine, mescaline, ecstasy, psilocybin.
Exert their effects through a complex interaction between various neurotransmitters especially serotonin.
Distort Reality and fantasy enhancement of sensory experiences.

Marijuana
Inhibits what? Increases what?
Active chemical?
Has what physiological effect?
The active chemical in marijuana THC inhibits GABA activity and indirectly increases dopamine activity causing pleasure.
Physiological effects include redness, dry mouth, fatigue, impairment of short-term memory, increased heart rate, increased appetite, lower blood pressure psychologically it falls into the category of stimulant depressant hallucinogen.
Selective attention
Focusing on one part of the sensorium about ignoring other stimuli
Controlled vs Automatic Processing
Newer complex tasks that require undivided attention versus familiar routine tasks
What are the five basic components of language
phonology morphology semantics syntax pragmatics
Phonology
The actual sound of language
Morphology
Structure of words
Building blocks of words
re- design- -ed
Semantics
The association of meaning with a word
Syntax
Putting words together to form sentences
Pragmatics
Dependence of language and context on pre-existing knowledge
How you word things may be determined by how well you know someone.
Prosody
The rhythm cadence and inflection of our voices
Timeline of language acquisition
9-12 months- Babbling 12-18 months- one word per month 18-20 months- explosion of language and combining words 2 to 3 years- longer sentences 3+ words 5 years- language rules largely mastered
Nativist (Biological) Theory
The existence of some innate capacity for language
Language acquisition
Innate ability, a theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules
Critical Period
Necessary age range for optimal language development. Thought to be between two years of age of puberty. If no language exposure occurs at the same litter training is largely ineffective
Learning (Behaviorist) Theory
Explains language acquisition by operate conditioning.
Parents and take a picture pee and reinforce sounds that sounds like language spoken by the parents overtime and fat perceive certain sounds a little value and they’re not reinforced what other sounds of value in a reliable reinforced by parents and caregivers
Social Interactionist Theory
Focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes. Language acquisition is driven by the child desire to communicate and behave in a social manner. 
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
The way that we think about the world is determined by the content of language. Language affects the way we think rather than the other way around.
Brocas vs Wernicke’s area
Both located in the dominant hemisphere (usually the left hemisphere)
Brocas:
Located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe controls the motor function of speech
Wernickes:
Located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension
What structure connects the Wernickes and Broca’s areas?
Arcurate Fasiculus
Aphasia
Deficit of language production or comprehension
Brocas aphasia
Absent ability to produce spoken language
Aka expressive aphasia
Wernickes aphasia
Motor production and fluency is retained but comprehension of speech is lost. These patients speak nonsensical sounds an inappropriate word combinations devoid of meaning.
Conduction Aphasia
When the connection between the Brocas and wernickes area of the brain is impaired speech production and comprehension are intact but the patient is unable to repeat something that has been said.
