Chapter 4 Flashcards
T/F those who are more excluded from social groups tend to have a higher threat to bacteria rather than virus
true
- the person that is excluded will respond to her feelings of isolation by generating hormonal signals that will tell her immune system to gear up to protect her again bacteria - this is because social exclusion is often meant physical vulnerability (VIRAL tendency)
- someone who is socially connected, her immune system shifts to focus to viral threats (BACTERIAL tendencies)
what is biological psychology
also called behavioural neuroscience
- the study of the reciprocal connections between the structure and activity of the nervous system and behaviour and mental process
- stomach empty, gut hormone = ghrelin is released up to the brain = feeling hungry
*biology initiates behaviour and cognitions
- they way people think about things, food, stress, etc can affect their biology/health
what was the only correct conclusion that phrenologists had made when analyzing the bumps on a person’s skull
they thought the bumps were related to personality
but what they were right about is that behavioural functions are localized to certain areas of the brain
what is reductionism in science
it is defined as the explanation of complex things as sums of simpler things
what did John Hughlings Jackson figure out about the nervous system
found out that the nervous system is not just one continuous system - it is made up of different cells
- found out that the system is organized as a hierarchy
- the experiment he used was people drinking alcohol and how it decreases the parts of the brain that impact decision making
- someone becoming more violent even though they never fight indicates that the aggression were there all along, but the activity of the higher levels of the nervous system restrict their expression to a more appropriate circumstance
what does an electroencephalogy (EEG) do
placing electrodes on the scalp of a patient and recording their electrical activity of the brain
- provides info about the timing of the brain activity
what does an fMRI do
functional magnetic resonance imaging
- involves putting a person in the machine that measures brain activity by detecting changes in cerebral blood flow
- although thtere is a time lag between the brain activity and the hemodynamic response so the fMRI has low temporal resolution
what is the hemodynamic response
as neurons are active they require rapid delivery of blood and nutrients
- they can see which parts of the brain are more active or inactive doing particular tasks
what is synesthesia and what technology was used to investigate
it is a condition where they experience mingling of senses occurring by a trigger
a patient seemed to have a feeling of ecstasy and they wanted to see which parts of his brain become active using fMRI
- they found out that when he listens to the James bond theme song, it activates areas of the brain that are commonly associated with intense emotional arousal as well as sensory and motor areas of the brain
what are the 2 divisions in the nervous system
central nervous system - brain + spinal cord
peripheral nervous system - nerves that branch outward from the CNS
what is cultural neuroscience
an interdisciplinary field that examines how cultural and biological mechanisms mutually shape human behaviour across phylogenetic, development, and situational timescales
- basically, genetics + brain structures and cultures that interact to shape behaviour
- how does cultural phenomena influence genetics and brain structures
- how genetics and brain structure shape cultural phenomena
what are neurons
another name for nerve cells
- billions of neurons in the brain
what is gila
large number of neurons, the NS has lots of supporting cells known as gila
- they make it possible for neurons to do their job
- provide structural matrix for neurons
- some gila are mobile and allow them to move to the location where neurons have been damaged
- they form tight connections with the blood vessels - this prevents many toxins circulating in the blood from exiting into brain tissue where neurons can be harmed
- one type of gila forms the myelin in the brain and spinal cord, and the other makes the myelin in the remainder of the NVS
explain neural communication
it is a 2 step process
1. takes place within a single neuron and involves generation of electrical signal
2. takes place between 2 neurons and involves the release of chemical messenger from one neuron that affect the activity to the second neuron = electrochemical communication system
what is the cell body and explain parts of the neuron
neurons have a large central mass / cell body
- has a nucleus which takes care of the cell such as genetic codes, manufacturing of proteins, etc
- outer membrane = barrier between the extracellular fluid and the intercellular fluid
(the membrane is made from fatty materials that are insoluble in water - has pores in the membrane to allow chemicals to move in and out)
axons vs dendrites
AXONS: they are the branches on the neurons that preform the information processing and communication efforts (neurons typically have 1 axon)
DENDRITES: other type of branches that receive input from other neurons (a neuron may have multiple dendrites)
synaptic vesicles
when you stub ur toe, the neurons from your lower back shoot and extend to your toe or as far as they can go and the axon bulges to form a terminal, if you look inside an axon terminal you can see the hallow spheres called synaptic vesicles which = chemical messenger molecules
what does white matter and grey matter consist of
grey matter = high density of cell bodies
white matter = bundles of axons
what is myelin
when gila wrap around some axons which form an important layer of insulation
- it makes neural signaling fast and energy efficient
- speeding up the transmission of neural signals and contributing to quicker recovery between signals - it increases the amount of information a neuron can transmit per second
- when you are hurt, the sharp pain message is sent to the brain via myelinated axons
how does the gila in the brain and spinal cord behave when damaged vs the gila in the PNS
the brain and spinal cord gila form scar tissue which does not allow the nerves to be repaired
- but damaged nerves in the PNS do not form scar tissue and help damaged axons regrow (can be repaired)
T/F myelin growth in the human nervous system begins before birth but is not completed till 25
true
- the last area of the nervous system to be myelinated is the prefrontal cortex which = judgement and morality
- until fully myelinated the neurons do not work properly = teens and young adults
what is the action potential
neuron generates electrical signal = action potential
- the signal travels the length of the axon
- the arrival of the axon to the second neuron = signals the release of a chemical messager - this floats across the extracellular fluid
- the presence of the chemical messager induced the action potential in the next neuron and the message gets passed along
what is resting potential
when a neuron is not processing information = rest
T/F the inside of the neuron is positively charged
false
neg charge
due to the different chemical composition of the intracellular and extracellular fluids
polarized vs depolarized
polarized = far apart
depolarized - closer together
- means that the difference between the electrical charges of the extracellular and the intercellular recordings is decreased
- eaches the threshold for producing an action potential
hyperpolarized = moved farther apart than before (the electrical charges in the extra and intracellular have increases)
what does reaching threshold of a neuron mean
reaching action potential
- opening and clsoing the pores or channels of the neural membrane which allow the chemicals to move in or out of the cell
- these chemicals are in the forms of ions or charged particles dissolved in water
- once the threshold is reached, channels open allowing for the ions to rush into the neuron
- since ions change the polarity, the inside of the neuron is now + and the outside is -
T/F the neuron is either at rest or in action potential, no other middle state
true
what is propagation
it is the sending of the signal down the length of the axon –> terminal –> releases the chemical messengers
UNMYELINATED AXON
- action potentials from one small section of the axon to the adjacent down the entire length of the axon
MYELINATED AXON
- action potentials are formed only at the sections of the membrane known has the nodes of Ranvier
- the propagation can skip sections covered by myelin
- faster, more efficent
what is the synapse and explain the arrival of the action potential
it is the point of communication between 2 neurons
- they do not touch, and are separated by extracellular fluid
- electrical signals are able to jump and send the messages to the next neuron
- the action potential releases the vesicles from their protein anchorsand they migrate to the other cell membrane = fuse
- they open up and spill the contents into the synaptic gap
what are neurotransmitters
the name of the chemical messenger that communicates from one neuron to the next across the synapse
what are some neurotransmitters
- behaviours influenced by the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine = movement, memory
ephinephrine (adrenalin) = arousal
norepinephrine (noradrenalin) = arousal, vigilance
Dopamine = movement, planning, reward
serotonin = mood, appetite, sleep
glutamate = excitation of brain activity
GABA = inhibition of the brain activity
Endorphins = pain
what is a receptor
they work with neurotransmitters like locks and keys
- the neurotransmitters that are releases across the synapse come into contact with the special channels = receptors
- the neurotransmitter and the receptor can have 2 effects on the receiving neuron - they can have an excitatory effect which slightly depolarizes the receiving neuron (allowing it to reach action potential)
- the other effect = inhibitory effect which slightly hyperpolarizes the receiving neuron moving the cell farther from the threshold and reducing the likelihood that it will initiate an action potential
what is reuptake
a process in which molecules of neurotransmitter in the synaptic gap are returned to the axon terminal that they came from for repackaging and using later
many drugs interfere with the reuptake process
why do we need inhibitory messages between neurons to not pass the message along
tetanus = toxin produced by bacteria
- damages the inhibitory neurons
- without these neurons the system is left with only excitation only = extreme muscle contraction
- inhibitory neurons allow the muscles to relax
what is agonists vs antagonists
agonists - drugs that enhance the actions of neurotransmitters
- antagonists are drugs that inhibit the actions of neurotransmitters
- an agonist may enhance the actions of a particular neurotransmitter by increasing its release, blocking its reuptake or mimicking the neurotransmitter and activating its postsynaptic receptor
EX: cocaine prevents the dopamine transporter protein from reuptaking function = accumulation of dopamine in the synaptic cleft which = effects of cocaine
what is summation
it is the decision that the neuron generates to become action potential or not
- adding up all the incoming messages and making a message based on that
-
why is ACh (acetylcholine) neurotransmitter important
it is key in the autonomic nervous system which carries commands from the brain to the glands and organs
- also involved in the brain circuits related to the learning and memory
explain norepinephrine activity
leads to arousal and vigilance
- released by the sympathetic nervous system which prepares us to react to emergencies by providing resources like oxygen to run away
- abnormalities in norepinephrine = bipolar disorder or PTSD
explain dopamine
governs movement, planning and reward
- parkinsons diseases happens when the dopamine releasing neurons in the brains movement circuits begin to die
- this makes normal movement difficult
- brains reward system
- drugs = stimulate increases activity in dopamine circuits = schizophrenia or ADHD
how does botox work to treat muscle spasms
botox interacts with ACh by preventing its release from the axon terminal
- without the activity of the ACh telling a muscle to contract = paralyzed
explain serotonin
involved with systems regulating sleep, appetite, mood, aggression
- these behaviours are tightly linked
explain endorphins
endogenous morphine
- natural response to pain
“runners high” experience a sense of well-being and reduced sensation of pain, results from the release of endorphins initiated by high levels of activity
- opioid drugs are much similar in chemical structure to our natural endorphins that the receptors cannot tell them apart and treat the opioids as if they were natural endorphins
what is neurogenesis
the creation of new neurons (used to think that only accured in embryonic development but adults can have it too)
- new neurons are always generated by stem cells in 2 regions of the adult mammal = hippocampus and the olfactory bulb
where is the hippocampus
a subcortical region of the brain
where is the olfactory bulb
a region located above the nasal cavity
involved in the sense of smell
what is neuroplasticity
refers to the ability of neurons to change in structure and function in response to alterations in their environment
- newly generated neurons enjoy a brief period of enhanced plasticity
- the neurons generated by the adult brain may play a critical role in experience-induced plasticity
what is long term potentiation
a process that enhances communication between the 2 neurons and plays an important role in learning and memory
what is cerebrospinal fluid
it is the clear, plasma like fluid that protects the brain and the spinal cord
- near the base of the skull, the openings known as ventricles allow CSF to flow from the ventricles into the meninges (membranes under the bones to protect)
what is the significance of the spinal cord
it serves as a major conduit for information flowing to and from the brain along large bundles of nerve fibres
- carrying sensory information from the body and delivering commands to muscles
what do spinal reflexes tell us about 3 types of neurons
- sensory neurons (carry info from external environment to the body and to the CNS)
- motor neurons (carry commands from the CNS back to the muscles and glands of the body
- interneurons (not sensory or motor = inter = form bridges between sensory and motor neurons)
what is the brainstem
the part of the brain containing the midbrain, pons and medulla
- it is the 3rd bulge coming from the brain (2 hemispheres and brainstem)
- directly branching from the brainstem = cranial nerves
what is the medulla
the spinal cord merges with our first brainstem structure
- the medulla contains large bundles of nerve fibres travelling from higher levels of the brain
- manages many functions like heart rate, breathing, blood pressure
what is the pons
above the medulla
- contains structures involved with the management of sleep, arousal and facial expressions
- pons mean bridge and they serve as bridges between the high and lower portions of the brain but also connect the cerebellum to the rest of the brain
what is the cerebellum
it is the structure attached to the brainstem that participates in skilled movement and in humans = complex cognitive processing
- not affected by alcohol
- contains more nerve cells than the rest of the brain combined
- damage to the human cerebellum produces subtle deficits in language, cognition, and perception
what is the midbrain
sits above the pons and contains alot of structures that are involved in sensory reflexes, movement, pain
- when endorphins are present in the periaqueductal grey they reduce the perception of pain by decreasing the strength of pain messages travelling to higher levels of the brain
what is the reticular formation
running the length of the brainstem’s core from the upper medulla into the midbrain
- participates in the management of levels of arousal
- the cells have 2 settings here, fast or slow
- when cells are firing quickly they usually show signs of being away
- when the cells are firing slowly or are damaged, they are either in deep sleep or unconscious
why are the subcortial structures called subcortial
because they lie below the cerebral cortext
- they are the bulk of the cerebral hemispheres
- these structures participate in self-awareness, learning, emotion, movement, communication and inhibition of impluses and the regulation of body states
explain the structure and function of the thalamus
often called the gateway to the cortex
- vision, hearing, touch, taste travels first to the thalamus and then to the cerebral cortex
- thalamic stroke, lesions in the thalamus = memory loss
what is the basal ganglia
consists of several large structures involved with voluntary movement - curves around the thalamus
- forms complex circuits with motor structures located in the brainstem, thalamus, cerebral cortex
- contributes to disorders, OCD, ADHD
what is the nucleus accumbens
a small structure located between the caudate and putamen - brains reward and pleasure circuitry
related to the persons sense of social inclusion
(when are you eating, happy, gambling, addictive drugs)
- people with low and weak social connections view the same happy scenes but their nucleus accumbens shows less acitivty than those who are socially connected to people
what it is the hypothalamus
involved in the motivation and homeostatsis or regulation of body functions such as temperature, thirst, hunger etc
- 4F = feeding, fleeing, fighting, fornication (sex)
what is the hippocampus
it is essential for forming long term memories
- memories are not stored permanently in the hippocampus, but it involved in the storage and retrieveal of memories located somewhere else in the brain
- damage = impairments in the ability to form new memories, but intelligence and personality that was occured before the damage remain the same
what is the cingulate cortex
it forms a fold of tissue on the inner surface of each cerebral hemisphere
- the anterior cingulate corect participates with the hypothalamus to control the autonomic nervous system
- plays a role in the decision making, emotion, anticipation of reward + empathy
what is the amygdala
it is deeply embedded in the temporal lobe, the wing of the cortex that curves around the side of the brain in each hemisphere
- it receives sensory information, vision hearing and smell, produces emotional and motivational output that is sent to the cerebral cortex
- responds to both positive and negative stimuli, it is best known for identifying and remembering and responding to fear and aggression
- more active when people are looking at pictures of fearful facial expressions
what is the corpus callosum
above the brainstem, there is 2 large cerebal hemispheres which are connected by a large bundle of nerve fibers = corpus callosum
what is the cerebral cortex
the thin layer of cells coving the outer surface of the cerebral hemisphere
explain and define all the lobes of the brain
frontal lobe = front of the brain
parietal lobe = behind the front lobe (the sometosensory cortex = processes touch, pain, body position, skin temperature)
occipital lobe = back of the brain (visual)
temporal lobe = curving around the side of each hemisphere (auditory)
what is the prefrontal cortex
the most forward portion of each frontal lobe
- involved with the planning of behavior, attention, and judgement
what are executive functions
refer to the range of cognitive processes that enable self-regulation and cognitive control of behavior - including attentional control, inhibition, planning, self-monitoring
explain the importance of the frontal lobes
alien hand syndrome - damaged the prefrontal cortex which is involved in movement
- no control over their limbs
- after damage = not the same person
T/F physicians used to deliberately damage the frontal lobes using frontal lobotomy
true
it was used to reduce fear and anxiety in patients with disorders
what is the orbitofrontal cortex
part of the prefrontal cortex that is located behind the bony orbits protecting the eyes, plays an important role in our emotional lives
- abnormalities in the orbitofrontal cortex and antisocial behaviour = connection
explain the occipital lobe
located at the back of the brain
- when u get hit in the back of the head, u see white light
- this lobe = primary visual cortex
- it processes the info from your eyes by responding to basic info about the image (the amount of processing by itself does not allow u to read this page or to recognize someone
- occipital lobe with the temporal lobe working together allow u to recognize people or objects
explain the temporal lobe
- primary auditory cortex
- allows us to process incoming sounds
- damaged lobe = unable to recognize people they know until they start talking
explain the parietal lobe
primary somatosensory cortex
- localize touch, pain, skin, temp, body position
- damage = neglect, difficulty perceiving part of their body or part of the visual field
- process input about taste and engages in some complex processing of the vision as the temporal lobe does
- tells us how quickly something is moving towards us
why are some people more prone to procrastination than others
stems from difficulties with emotional control and regulation
- areas of the brain such as anterior cingulate cortext and prefrontal cortex are involved in the execution of goal-directed behaviours
- brain imaging showed that procrastinators have a larger amygdalae and reduced functional connectivity between the amygdala and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex
do humans have mirror neurons
using fMRI, we can see acitvity of larger areas of the brain (mirror systems) rather than single neurons
- we do have mirror systems that help us understand not just the action and emotions of others
what does lateralization mean
a special type of localization of function in the cerebral cortex
T/F language for most people is lateralized to the left hemisphere
true
- although most people have the language center in the right hemi or both
music, intuition, visual arts is what side of the hemisphere
right
- usually correlated with negative emotions
mathematical computation, logical reasoning is what part of the hemisphere
left
- usually correlated with positive emotions
what is the biggest myth about brain hemispheres
that you have a dominant hemisphere which correleates to the individual differences
what is the advantage of lateralization
- ## provides organisms with the ability to multitask
T/F lateralization of language is correlated with the hand u write with
true
T/F human lateralization of brain structure might have made language possible
true
- but lateralization might account for our species vulnerabilities = schizophrenia = abnormal hemisphere lateralization = left handed or ambiguous
what is the somatic nervous system
part of the PNS - transmits commands for voluntary movement from the CNS to the muscles and brings sensory input back to the CNS for further processing
what is the autonomic nervous system
the control of tissues other than the skeletal muscle
- glands and organs
autonomic = autonomy or independence
- control of the body
3 DIVISIONS
1. sympathetic
2. parasympathetic
3. enteric
explain the sympathetic nervous system
prepares the body for situations requiring the expenditure of energy
- an an arousal state = heart racing, breathing rapidly, sweat = provides the muscles with recourses to = fight or flight
- important because it understands stress
explain the parasympathetic nervous system
directs the storage of energy
- controls glands and organs when calm
- doesn’t use energy but stores nutrients to repair and return to the activities of internal organs at baseline levels
T/F cant have the para and sympathetic nervous system work at once
true
- one slows ur heart down the other speeds up
explain the enteric nervous system
consists of nerve cells embedded in the lining of the gastrointestinal system
- “second brain”
- nerve cells found in the spinal cord
- communicates with the endocrine system
- gastrointestinal pain, hunger, fullness (satiety)
95% of the bodys source of serotonin
what is the endocrine system
made up of glands that release chemical messengers = hormones into the blood
- responds from the nervous system and from the hypothalamus in particular
- pineal gland, pituitary glads, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, ovaries
what does the pineal gland release
chemical messenger melatonin
- sleep-wake cycle
explain the significance of the pituitary gland
roof of your mouth
- regulated by the hypothalamus
- 1. oxytocin, vasopressin, HGH (human growth hormone)
- oxy and vaso = breastfeeding, maintenance of fluid levels
- HGH = growth and regeneration
- 2. hormones that influence the release of hormones from other glands
what does the thyroid gland release
in ur throat
- raises or lowers your rate of metabolism or chemical processes your body needs to sustain life
- low = depression
- when stressed thyroid –> adrenal –> cortisol
why is it important to consider whether a person is biologically male or female
have different hormones, different affects
- EX: genders whom portray as more masculine have a higher pain threshold
